Материал: Гольцева О.Ю. Международное право в официальных документах. Под ред. И.А. Горшеневой
211
Exercise 10. Read the text again and find the English equivalents for these word combinations.
Быть непреклонным, невозможно политически, политическая воля, согласовать новый всеобщий договор, без дальнейших ограничений, порог, стороны, придерживающиеся противоположного мнения, в трудной ситуации, полноценный договор, готовить проект, содержать уступки, сократить выбросы, спорное соглашение, быть вызванным естественными процессами, подтвердить соглашение, дополнительное замечание, стать спасением.
Exercise 11. Cover the article above and fill in the appropriate prepositions.
1.___ further constraints soon, it will be very difficult to keep the rise ___ average global temperatures ___ preindustrial times ___ 2C.
2.A pattern ___ change affecting global or regional climate may be caused ___ both natural processes and human activity.
3.The US administration is skeptical ___ the ability to get a full-blown legal deal that replaces the Kyoto Protocol or builds ___ it.
4.UN climate convention should be the sovereign body ___
international climate talks.
5.The US was pressing small countries ___ endorsing the accord, claiming they would not be eligible ___ financial help ___ rich nations.
6.the EU is preparing to give ground ___ one ___ further emissions cuts ___ rich countries to be made ___ the Kyoto Protocol.
7.If more countries ___ the EU take this position, that could be the foundation ___ something that could be a salvation ___ this situation".
212
Exercise 12. Match these idioms and their definitions. Make up the sentences of your own using these expressions.
1. to follow through |
a) not understanding or having |
|
the same aims as each other |
2. to hold out for |
b) to be disagreeing or quarrel- |
|
ling over sth |
3. to be in a sticky situa- |
c) to get gradually closer to |
tion |
sth, going in the direction |
4. to gain/make ground |
d) to be in difficult, unpleasant |
on |
position |
5. to be at odds with sb |
e) to cause a delay in reaching |
over sth |
an agreement in the hope of |
|
gaining sth |
6. at cross purposes |
f) to carry out or continue sth |
|
to the end |
7. to steer through |
g) to guide sb’s movements, |
|
thoughts, etc |
Exercise 13. Answer and debate these questions.
1.What is climate change? Is it caused by natural processes or human activity? Do you find the situation dangerous?
2.What measures should all countries take to stop global warming process?
3.Do you think a global all inclusive binding environment protection accord is likely to be signed in the nearest future? Why or why not?
OVER TO YOU
Study the quotation below and write an essay to express your opinion about the ideas presented in it.
“We are 5 percent of the global population and we consume a third of the total resources – on some level we should all feel guilty relative to the world”.
Julia Louis-Dreyfus, an American actress and comedian.
213
LESSON 12
THE THREAT OF TERRORISM AND FASCISM Starting up
Comment on the following quotation. Do you agree with the ideas expressed? Whose official policy do you think it is?
"Shoot first, ask questions later. Wanted: Dead or alive. Such is our official policy regarding Osama bin Laden, the most infamous outlaw of the era".
http://tinyfrog.wordpress.com
Discuss the following questions.
1.What is terrorism, in your opinion? Can you think of a definition of terrorism?
2.Is terrorism “religiously” coloured?
3.What are the forms of terrorism?
4.Why do you think it exists?
5.Is it possible to stop or prevent it? What are the ways of combating terrorism?
6.There is an opinion that one of the main terrorist threats for the world is still Al Qaeda. Do you agree with it?
Exercise 1. Read the text. What is understood by
“preemption” in this text? Why is it considered to be important? Do you agree with it?
What is Terrorism?
Terrorism is not new, and even though it has been used since the beginning of recorded history it can be relatively hard to define. Terrorism has been described variously as both a tactic and strategy; a crime and a holy duty; a justified reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. Obviously, a lot depends on whose point of view is being represented. Terrorism has often been an effective
214
tactic for the weaker side in a conflict. As an asymmetric form of conflict, it confers coercive power with many of the advantages of military force at a fraction of the cost. Due to the secretive nature and small size of terrorist organizations, they often offer opponents no clear organization to defend against or to deter.
That is why preemption is being considered to be so important. In some cases, terrorism has been a means to carry on a conflict without the adversary realizing the nature of the threat, mistaking terrorism for criminal activity. Because of these characteristics, terrorism has become increasingly common among those pursuing extreme goals throughout the world. But despite its popularity, terrorism can be a nebulous concept. Even within the U.S. Government, agencies responsible for different functions in the ongoing fight against terrorism use different definitions.
The United States Department of Defense defines terrorism as “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological”. Within this definition, there are three key elements—violence, fear, and intimidation—and each element produces terror in its victims. The FBI uses this: "Terrorism is the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives". The U.S. Department of State defines "terrorism" to be "premeditated politically-motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.
Outside the United States Government, there are greater variations in what features of terrorism are emphasized in definitions. The United Nations produced this definition in 1992: "An anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent
215
action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby – in contrast to assassination – the direct targets of violence are not the main targets." The most commonly accepted academic definition starts with the U.N. definition quoted above, and adds two sentences totaling another 77 words on the end; containing such verbose concepts as "message generators" and 'violence based communication processes." Less specific and considerably less verbose, the British Government definition of 1974 is "…the use of violence for political ends, and includes any use of violence for the purpose of putting the public, or any section of the public, in fear".
Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim. The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the local populace, the government, and the world to their cause. The terrorists plan their attack to obtain the greatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose. The effectiveness of the terrorist act lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s reaction to the act. For example, in 1972 at the Munich Olympics, the Black September Organization killed 11 Israelis. The Israelis were the immediate victims. But the true target was the estimated 1 billion people watching the televised event.
Exercise 2. Find the English equivalents for the following word combinations.
Святой долг, оправданная реакция на угнетение, отвратительная вещь, которой нет оправдания, сила принуждения, право первой руки/ преимущественное право, без противника, преследовать экстремистские цели, неясная концепция, насаждать страх, вынуждать и запугивать, преследуя политические цели, применять насилие против гражданских лиц, тайная группа, многословное определение, отнюдь не только непосредственная жертва, местное население.