Notes |
253 |
78.Rosa Luxemburg, “Social Democracy and the National Struggles in Turkey,” trans. Ian Birchall, Revolutionary History 8:3 (2003).
79.Richard G. Hovannisian, Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), pp. 18–20.
80.Suny, “Eastern Armenians,” p. 135; Matossian, Impact, p. 19.
81.Suny, “Eastern Armenians,” p. 135. Aleksandr Kerenski and Pavel Miliukov, both prominent lawyers in 1912, successfully defended some members of Dashnaktsutiun. Kerenski and Miliukov became prime minister and foreign minister, respectively, of Russia in 1917.
82.Jacob M. Landau, Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation, 2nd rev. ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Uriel Heyd, Foundations of Turkish Nationalism: The Life and Teachings of Ziya Gökalp (London: Luzac, 1950); Taha Parla, The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gökalp, 1876–1924 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1985).
83.A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954), p. 451.
84.Hovannisian, Armenia on the Road to Independence, pp. 29–30; Walker, Armenia, pp. 182–88.
85.Anderson, Eastern Question, p. 291; Taylor, Struggle, pp. 474, 489, 490; Lewis,
Emergence, p. 214; M.E. Yapp, The Making of the Modern Near East, 1792–1923
(London: Longman, 1987), p. 64.
86.Lewis, Emergence, p. 225; Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908–1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), pp. 116–20.
87.W.E.D. Allen and Paul Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), pp. 228–29; Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1918 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968), pp. 13–14; see also Vahakn N. Dadrian, German Responsibility in the Armenian Genocide: A Review of the Historical Evidence of German Complicity (Watertown, MA: Blue Crane Books, 1996), p. 20; Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus (Providence, RI: Berghahn Books, 1995), p. 204.
6THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE
1.Ronald Grigor Suny, “Eastern Armenians under Tsarist Rule,” and Richard G. Hovannisian, “The Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914,” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), pp. 136, 233–38.
2.See FO 43989/19208/13/44, Marling to Grey, Sept. 26, 1913, in Great Britain,
British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898–1914, vol. 10: The Near and Middle East on the Eve of War, ed. G.P. Gooch and Harold Temperely (London: H.M.S.O., 1928–1936), p. 517.
3.FO 6328/98/14/44 (No. 97), Sir L. Mallet to Sir Edward Grey, Feb. 11, 1914, ibid., p. 229.
4.Internationalen Beziehungen, 1st series, I, no. 210, as quoted in Roderic H. Davison, “The Armenian Crisis, 1912–1914,” American Historical Review 53 (April 1948): 504.
254 |
Notes |
5.FO 32430/19208/13/44, Marling to Grey, July 13, 1913, British Documents, vol. 10,
p.496.
6.Rostom to Simon Vratsian, Feb. 12, 1914, in Rostom: Namakani [Rostom: Collection of Letters] (Beirut: Hamazkayin, 1999), pp. 611–12.
7.Great Britain, Parliament, The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916. Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, ed. and comp. Arnold Toynbee, 3rd ed. (Beirut: G. Doniguian and Sons, 1988 [London: Sir Joseph Causton and Sons, 1916]),
pp.635–36 (hereafter Treatment).
8.Djemal Pasha, Memories of a Turkish Statesman, 1913–1919 (New York: George H. Doran, 1922), p. 276.
9.Simon Vratsian, Hayastani Hanrapetutiun [Republic of Armenia] (Paris: A.R.F. Central Committee of America, 1928; repr., Erevan: Hayastan, 1993),
pp.5–6; W.E.D. Allen and Paul Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), p. 234; Vahakn N. Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus (Providence, RI: Berghahn Books, 1995), pp. 220–21; Dadrian, “Genocide as a Problem of National and International Law: The World War I Armenian Case and Its Contemporary Legal Ramifications,” Yale Journal of International Law 14:2 (Summer 1989): 265.
10.William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890–1902, 2 vols. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935), vol. 1, pp. 162, 202–10.
11.Vahakn N. Dadrian, German Responsibility in the Armenian Genocide: A Review of the Historical Evidence of German Complicity (Watertown, MA: Blue Crane Books, 1996), p. 47.
12.Richard G. Hovannisian, “The Historical Dimensions of the Armenian Question, 1878–1923,” in The Armenian Genocide in Perspective, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1986), p. 28; Christopher J. Walker, Armenia: The Survival of a Nation (London: Croom Helm, 1980),
pp.197–98; Dadrian, History, pp. 236–39, 246n26. On the origins of the Teshkilat-
iMakhsusa, see Philip H. Stoddard, “The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Preliminary Study of the Teskilât-ı Mahsusa,” Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1963.
13.Vahan Minakhorian, 1915 tvakane [The Year 1915] (Venice: Mekhitarist Press, 1949), pp. 66–71.
14.Dadrian, German, p. 47.
15.Treatment, Doc. 122; Grigor H. Galustian, comp. and ed., Marash kam Germanik ev heros Zeitun [Marash or Germanica and Heroic Zeitun], 2nd ed. (New York: Compatriotic Union of Marash, 1934; Long Island City, NY: Union of Marash Armenians, 1988), pp. 171–72; Levon Norashkharyan, Zeytune, 1914–1921 tt. [Zeitun, 1914–1921] (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1984), p. 9; Sebuh Akuni, Milion me Hayeru jardi patmutyune [The Story of the Massacre of
aMillion Armenians] (Constantinople: Hayastan, 1921), p. 298.
16.Simon Payaslian, “The Death of Armenian Karin/Erzerum,” in Armenian Karin/Erzerum, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2003),
pp.341–42; Minakhorian, 1915, pp. 90–93; Johannes Lepsius, Rapport secret sur les massacres d’Armenie (Beirut: Hamazkayin, 1980; first published Paris: Payot, 1918), p. 59.
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255 |
17.France, Archives du Ministère des Affaires Étrangères (A.M.A.E.), Guerre 1914–1918, Turquie, Dépêche no. 34, Barthe de Sandfort, Vice-Consul of France at Van, to Bompard, Ambassador of France at Constantinople, Sept. 19, 1914, in Arthur Beylerian, ed. and comp., Les grandes puissances l’empire ottoman et les arméniens dans les archives françaises (1914–1918) (Paris: Université de Paris I, Panthéon-Sorbonne, 1983), p. 4; Payaslian, “Death of Armenian Karin/ Erzerum,” pp. 342–43.
18.Turkish Ambassador, Rustem, to Secretary of State, Sept. 10, 1914, in U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1914 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1922), pp. 1090–91.
19.Simon Payaslian, United States Policy toward the Armenian Question and the Armenian Genocide (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 49–50.
20.S.L.A. Marshall, World War I (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964; repr. Mariner Books, 2001), p. 121.
21.Simon Payaslian, “United States Policy toward the Armenian Question and the Armenian Genocide,” Ph.D. diss., UCLA, 2003, p. 154.
22.Haigazn G. Ghazarian, Tseghaspan Turke [The Genocidal Turk] (Beirut: Hamazkayin, 1968), p. 113.
23.Ibid., p. 112; Treatment, p. 637; Dadrian, History, pp. 220–21.
24.Henry H. Riggs, Days of Tragedy in Armenia: Personal Experiences in Harpoot, 1915–1917 (Ann Arbor, MI: Gomidas Institute, 1997), p. 38.
25.France, A.M.A.E., Guerre 1914–1918, Opérations stratégiques, tome 1027, folio 12, télégramme no. 1174, Paléologue, Ambassador of France at Petrograd, to Declassé, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dec. 30, 1914, in Beylerian, Les grandes puissances, p. 6; Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields, pp. 243–44.
26.Payaslian, “United States Policy,” p. 195; Dzitogh had become a military garrison in September 1914. See Vartiter K. Hovannisian, Dzitogh, dashti Karno [Dzitogh of the Karin Plain] (Beirut: Hamazkayin, 1972), pp. 95–96, 196–98.
27.Treatment, Doc. 21; Dadrian, “Genocide as a Problem,” p. 260.
28.Maria Jacobsen, Oragrutiun 1907–1919: Kharpert [Diary 1907–1919: Kharpert], trans. from Danish by Bishop Nerses Bakhtikian and Mihran Simonian (Antelias: Catholicosate of Antelias, 1979), pp. 63, 64, 69–70.
29.Anahide Ter Minassian, “Van 1915,” in Armenian Van/Vaspurakan, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2000), pp. 214–15.
30.Treatment, pp. 637–38; Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields, pp. 245–47, 250–53, 261–62, 283n2, 284, 270, 271; Marshall, World War I, pp. 116–17; Keegan, First World War, p. 222; Walker, Armenia, p. 199.
31.Akuni, Milion, p. 29.
32.Zaven Der Yeghiayan, My Patriarchal Memoirs, translated from the Armenian by Ared Misirliyan, annotated by Vatche Ghazarian (Barrington, RI: Mayreni Publishing, 2002), p. 63.
33.Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields, p. 286; Donald M. McKale, War by Revolution: Germany and Great Britain in the Middle East in the Era of World War I
(Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1998), p. 86.
34.Payaslian, “United States Policy,” p. 207; McKale, War, pp. 90, 92.
35.“Battle of the Suez Canal: A First-Hand Account of the Unsuccessful Turkish Invasion,” Times (London), Feb. 19, 1915, reprinted in Current History 2 (April 1915): 85–88; Keegan, First World War, pp. 219–21; McKale, War, pp. 97–100.
36.Langer, Diplomacy, pp. 162, 202–10.
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Notes |
37.Treatment, p. 638.
38.Henry Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story (New York: Doubleday, 1918), pp. 20, 323.
39.Dadrian, History, pp. 4–5, 240; Simon Payaslian, “The Destruction of the Armenian Church during the Genocide,” Genocide Studies and Prevention 1:2 (Fall 2006): 156.
40.Leslie A. Davis, The Slaughterhouse Province: An American Diplomat’s Report on the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1917, ed. with introduction and notes by Susan K. Blair (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1989), pp. 39, 59, 71.
41.Payaslian, United States, pp. 58–59.
42.Bertha B. Morley, Marsovan 1915: The Diaries of Bertha B. Morley, ed. Hilmar Kaiser (Ann Arbor, MI: Gomidas Institute, 1999), pp. 2–3.
43.Levon Chormisian, Hamapatker arevmtahay mek daru patmutyan [A Panorama of One Century of Western Armenian History], 3 vols. (Beirut: Sevan, 1975), vol. 3, p. 359; Treatment, Docs. 29, 30, 31, 36; Lepsius, Rapport, pp. 227–28. See also United States, National Archives, Record Group 59 (hereafter RG 59), 867.00/760, Charles F. Brissel to Secretary of State, April 1, 1915.
44.Akuni, Milion, pp. 26–28; Chormisian, Hamapatker, pp. 343–45. See also Nuri Bey to Jemal Bey, Feb. 18, 1915, in Aram Antonian, Mets vochire [The Colossal Crime] (Boston: Bahak, 1921; repr. Erevan: Arevik, 1990), pp. 129–30, 133; Vahakn N. Dadrian, “The Secret Young-Turk Ittihadist Conference and the Decision for the World War I Genocide of the Armenians,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 7:2 (Fall 1993), reprinted with revisions in “The Armenian Genocide in Official Turkish Records,” Journal of Political and Military Sociology
22:1 (Summer 1994): 173–201.
45.Chormisian, Hamapatker, pp. 343–45; Antonian, Mets vochire, pp. 129–33.
46.“Chronology of the War,” Current History 2 (April 1915): 197; Current History 2 (May 1915): 405; Treatment, Docs. 21, 27, 28, 31, 36; Payaslian, United States,
p.61; Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields, pp. 295–99.
47.Bibliothèque Nubar (Paris), Boghos Nubar, “The War and the Armenians of Cilicia,” Memorandum, 918–923, Cairo, Feb. 3, 1915, in Boghos Nubar’s Papers and the Armenian Question, 1915–1918, trans. and ed. Vatche Ghazarian (Waltham, MA: Mayrnei Publishing, 1996), pp. 3–5 (hereafter Boshos Nubar Papers).
48.Akuni, Milion, pp. 294–95; Lepsius, Rapport, pp. 33–34; Haykaz M. Poghosyan, Zeytuni patmutyune, 1409–1921 tt. [The History of Zeitun, 1409–1921] (Erevan: Hayastan, 1969), p. 387.
49.Poghosyan, Zeytuni patmutyune, pp. 393–95.
50.Treatment, Doc. 123.
51.Ibid., Doc. 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, and editor’s note, “Cilicia,” pp. 466–67; Bibliothèque Nubar (Paris), 1107–1110, Levon Meguerditchian to Boghos Nubar, May 28, 1915, and [no file number] Yacoub Artin Pasha to Boghos Nubar, June 27, 1915, and 1249–1252, H. Mutafoff to Boghos Nubar, July 5, 1915, Boghos Nubar Papers, pp. 65, 115, 134; Abraham H. Hartunian, Neither to Laugh Nor to Weep: A Memoir of the Armenian Genocide (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968), pp. 54–56; Lepsius, Rapport, pp. 27–31, 33; 225–26; Norashkharyan, Zeytune, pp. 33, 44–45, 56; Poghosyan, Zeytuni patmutyune,
pp.388–90, 395–99; Galustian, Marash, pp. 176–77; Chormisian, Hamapatker,
pp.440–41, 477.
52.RG 59, 867.4016/373, Jackson to Secretary of State, March 4, 1918; Lepsius, Rapport, pp. 28–29, 38–39, 194; Treatment, Docs. 29–31, 36, 137; Khoren K. Davidson, Odyssey of an Armenian of Zeitoun (New York: Vantage Press, 1985),
Notes |
257 |
p.65; Zakaria Pztikian, comp., Kilikian kskidzner: Vaveragrer Kilikio katoghikosakan divanen, 1903–1915 [Cilician Pains: Documents from the Archives of the Cilician Catholicosate] (Beirut: Hrazdan, 1927), p. 136; Buzand Eghiayan, Zhamanakakits patmutiun Katoghikosutian Hayots Kilikio, 1914–1972
[Contemporary History of the Catholicosate of Cilician Armenians, 1914–1972] (Antelias: Catholicosate of Cilicia, 1975), pp. 43–44.
53.RG 59, 867.4016/59, Morgenthau to Secretary of State, April 30, 1915; RG 59, 867.4016/60, Bryan to Bakhméteff, May 3, 1915; Akuni, Milion, pp. 303–5; France, A.M.A.E., Guerre 1914–1918, Turquie, Kévork V, Catholicos de tous les Arméniens, à Sa Majesté Victor-Emmanuel, Roi d’Italie, April 22, 1915, in Beylerian, Les grandes puissances, p. 14; Catholicos Kevork V to Boghos Nubar, April 22, 1915, in Boghos Nubar Papers, p. 17.
54.For the minutes of the meeting, see Der Yeghiayan, Memoirs, pp. 62–63.
55.Treatment, Docs. 64, 94; Lepsius, Rapport, pp. 44–45; Nazaret Piranian, Kharberdi egherne [The Genocide in Kharpert] (Boston: Baykar, 1937), p. 99; Asatur H. Makarian, “Ampop hamaynapatker” [Concise Overview], in Hushamatian Mets Egherni, 1915–1965 [Memorial Volume of the Colossal Crime, 1915–1965], comp. and ed. Gersam Aharonian (Beirut: Atlas, 1965), p. 309.
56.Walker, Armenia, pp. 209–10; Grigoris Palakian, Hay Goghgotan [The Armenian Calvary] (Erevan: Hayastan, 1991), pp. 46–109 passim; Lepsius, Rapport,
pp.48, 228–29, 231, 233–34.
57.RG 59, 867.4016/59, Morgenthau to Secretary of State, April 30, 1915.
58.Morgenthau, Story, pp. 184–85, 194, 197–99, 202–04; Marshall, World War I,
pp.149–53; Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (London: Penguin Press, 1998; New York: Basic Books, 1999), pp. 290–91; Jean Giraudoux, “The Dardanelles,” North American Review 206 (Aug. 1917): 285–91; Brigadier General Cecil Faber Aspinall-Oglander, comp., Military Operations, Gallipoli (London: W. Heinemann, 1929–1932); Alan Moorehead, Gallipoli (London: H. Hamilton, 1956); Current History 2 (May 1915): 400.
59.James L. Stokesbury, A Short History of World War I (New York: William Morrow, 1981), pp. 115–20; “Battle of the Dardanelles,” Current History 2 (May 1915): 219–22; Marshall, World War I, p. 154.
60.Morgenthau, Story, p. 274.
61.Lewis Einstein, A Diplomat Looks Back (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968), pp. 118, 133. For a similar argument, see Joseph L. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East: Missionary Influence on American Policy, 1810–1927
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1971), p. 63.
62.For general history of the genocide, see Richard G. Hovannisian, The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992); Hovannisian, Armenian Genocide in Perspective; Dadrian, History; Taner Akçam, A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility
(New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006).
63.Chormisian, Hamapatker, pp. 439–40.
64.Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields, p. 299.
65.Lepsius, Rapport, pp. 130–32; Anahide Ter Minassian, “Van 1915,” in Armenian Van/Vaspurakan, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2000), p. 239.
66.Lepsius, Rapport, pp. 130–32; Ter Minassian, “Van 1915,” pp. 239, 242; Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields, pp. 300–1.
67.“The Petrograd Plan,” [Handed to Boghos Nubar by Dr. Zavriev], 1065–1068, [May 1915], in Boghos Nubar Papers, pp. 19–20. See also Jon Kirakosyan, comp.,
Hayastane mijazgayin ev Sovetakan artakin kaghakanutyan pastatghterum,