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p. 32; Vladimir Minorsky, “A Civil and Military Review in Fcrs in 881/1476,” British School of Oriental Studies 10:1 (1939): 141–78; repr. in Minorsky, The Turks, Iran and the Caucasus in the Middle Ages (London: Variorum, 1978).
3.The two dynasties of the Kara Koyunlu (Black Sheep) and the Ak Koyunlu (White Sheep) took their names from the emblems on their banners. John E. Woods, The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Federation, Empire, rev. ed. (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1999), pp. 48–49.
4.Dickran Kouymjian, “Armenia from the Fall of the Cilician Kingdom (1375) to the Forced Emigration under Shah Abbas (1604),” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), pp. 3–5; Khachikyan, “Hayastani,” p. 35. See also H.G. Turshyan, “Shah-i-Armenner” [Shah-i Armens], Patma-banasirakan handes 4 (1964): 117–33.
5.Kouymjian, “Armenia,” pp. 5–6, 35–39; Khachikyan, “Hayastani,” pp. 38–39.
6.Kouymjian, “Armenia,” p. 40.
7.P.P. Antabyan, “Dprots ev mankavarzhutyun” [School and Education], L.R Azaryan, “Kerparvest,” and R.A. Ishkhanyan, “Tpagrutyun” [Printing], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 4, pp. 437–50, 577–93, 607–26. See also Dickran Kouymjian, “Dated Armenian Manuscripts as a Statistical Tool for Armenian Studies,” in Medieval Armenian Culture, ed. Thomas Samuelian and Michael Stone (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1983), pp. 425–38.
8.Warren Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997), pp. 782, 796–97; Lapidus, History, pp. 306–8; Khachikyan, “Hayastani,” p. 49; Steven Runciman, The Fall of Constantinople, 1453 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965).
9.See Avedis K. Sanjian, The Armenian Communities in Syria under Ottoman Dominion (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965); H.M. Ghazaryan, “Kostandnupolisi ev Zmurniayi gaghtochakhnere” [The Colonies in Constantinople and Smyrna], in Aghayan et al., Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 4, pp. 301–2; Kouymjian, “Armenia,” pp. 10–13. See also Kevork B. Bardakjian, “The Rise of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople,” in
Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society, vol. 1: The Central Lands, ed. Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis (New York: Holmes and Meier Publishers, 1982), pp. 89-100.
10.Lapidus, History, p. 342; Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 36; Andrew C. Hess, “The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of the Oceanic Discoveries, 1453–1525,” American Historical Review 75 (Dec. 1970): 1870–1919; Hess, “The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 4:1 (Jan. 1973): 55–76; Kouymjian, “Armenia,” pp. 14–15; A.G. Hovhannisyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake Sefyan Irani ev Osmanyan Turkiayi tirapetutyan tak” [The Political Situation in Armenia under the Rule of Safavid Iran and Ottoman Turkey], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 4, p. 85; Kouymjian, “Armenia,” pp. 15, 17.
11.Kouymjian, “Armenia,” pp. 18–21, 25; George A. Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia from the Seventeenth Century to the Russian Annexation,” in Hovannisian, Armenian People, vol. 2, p. 81.
12.Omer L. Barkan, “The Price Revolution of the Sixteenth Century: A Turning Point in the History of the Near East,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 6:1 (Jan. 1975): 3–28; Halil Inalcik, An Economic and Social History of the
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Ottoman Empire, vol. 1: 1300–1600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 50–51, 95–98.
13.Inalcik, Economic, pp. 64–75.
14.Hovhannisyan, “Hayastani,” pp. 112–14.
15.Kouymjian, “Armenia,” pp. 21–23, 26, 27–28; Ronald C. Jennings, “Urban Population in Anatolia in the Sixteenth Century: A Study of Kayseri, Karaman, Amasya, Trabzon and Erzurum,” International Journal for Middle Eastern Studies
7:1 (Jan. 1976): 21–57.
16.Kouymjian, “Armenia,” pp. 22–24; Hovhannisyan, “Hayastani,” pp. 124–26; A.E. Redgate, The Armenians (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), p. 263.
17.George A. Bournoutian, A History of Qarabagh (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1994), p. 17.
18.Hovhannisyan, “Hayastani,” p. 108.
19.Kouymjian, “Armenia,” pp. 24–26; Nina G. Garsoian, “The Problem of Armenian Integration into the Byzantine Empire,” in Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire, ed. Hélène Ahrweiler and Angeliki E. Laiou (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1998), p. 59.
20.Redgate, Armenians, pp. 264, 266.
21.Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia,” p. 84; Hovhannisyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake,” p. 133.
22.Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia,” p. 85; Kouymjian, “Armenia,” p. 31.
23.Hovhannisyan, “Hayastani,” pp. 124–26, 128; Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia,” pp. 86–87.
24.Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia,” p. 89; Lapidus, History, p. 300; V.R. Grigoryan, “Arevelyan Hayastane xviii dari 50–70-akan tvakannerin” [Eastern Armenia during the 50s-70s of the 18th Century], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 4, p. 190.
25.A.G. Hovhannisyan, “Hay azatagrakan sharzhume Iranakan tirapetutyan ev Turk zavtichneri dem xviii dari arajin kesum” [The Armenian Liberation Movement against Iranian Rule and Turkish Tyranny during the First Half of the 18th Century], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 4, p. 138.
26.Lapidus, History, pp. 299–30; A.G. Hovhannisyan, “Haykakan sghnakhneri paykare Iranakan tirapetutyan dem ev Gandzaki 1724 tvakani HayAdrbejanakan paymanagire” [The Struggle of the Armenian Regions against Iranian Rule and the 1724 Armeno-Azerbaijan Treaty of Gandzak/Ganja], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 4, p. 154.
27.Krikor Maksoudian, “Armenian Communities in Eastern Europe,” in Hovannisian, Armenian People, vol. 2, pp. 55–59; Catherine Evtuhov et al.,
A History of Russia: Peoples, Legends, Events, Forces (Boston: Hougton Miflin, 2004), pp. 276–78.
28.Evtuhov et al., History of Russia, p. 306. For excellent analyses of Russian imperial expansion in the eighteenth century, see Christopher Duffy, Russia’s Military Way to the West: The Origins and Nature of Russian Military Power, 1700–1800 (London: Routledge, 1981); Aleksandr B. Kamenskii, The Russian Empire in the Eighteenth Century, trans. David Griffiths (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1997); Benedict H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Ottoman Empire
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1949).
29.Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia,” pp. 91–93; Grigoryan, “Arevelyan Hayastane,” pp. 194–95; V.G. Grigoryan, “Hay-Rusakan haraberutyunnere xviii dari 80–90-akan tvakannerin” [Armenian-Russian Relations during the 80s-90s of the 18th Century], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 4, p. 227.
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30.Grigoryan, “Hay-Rusakan haraberutyunnere,” pp. 224–26; Vahé Oshagan, “Modern Armenian Literature and Intellectual History from 1700 to 1915,” in Hovannisian, Armenian People, vol. 2, pp. 145–46.
31.Grigoryan, “Hay-Rusakan haraberutyunnere,” pp. 227–41.
32.Ibid., p. 246; Z.T. Grigoryan, “Hayastani hyusis-arevelyan shrjanneri miatsume Rusastanin” [The Unification of the Northeastern Regions of Armenia with Russia], in Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, ed. Ts.P. Aghayan et al. (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1974), vol. 5, p. 114; Grigoryan, “Hayastani,”
pp.119–26; Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia,” pp. 100–1.
33.Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia,” pp. 102–3; Grigoryan, “Hayastani,” pp. 134–35.
34.Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia,” pp. 104–5; Z.T. Grigoryan, “Arevelyan Hayastani azatagrume parskakan ltsits” [The Liberation of Eastern Armenia from the Persian Yoke], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 5,
pp.144–58, 170; H.F.B. Lynch, Armenia: Travels and Studies, 2 vols. (Beirut: Khayats, 1965), vol. 1, pp. 232–33.
35.M.S. Anderson, The Eastern Question, 1774–1923: A Study in International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1966); A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954).
36.Z.T. Grigoryan, “1828–1829 tt. Rus-Turkakan paterazme ev arevmtahayutyune” [The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 and the Western Armenians], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 5, pp. 189–201; Ronald Grigor Suny, “Eastern Armenians under Tsarist Rule,” in Hovannisian, Armenian People, vol. 2, p. 112. For different figures, see Bournoutian, “Eastern Armenia,” p. 105; Bournoutian, “The Ethnic Composition and the Socio-Economic Condition of Eastern Armenia in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century,” in Transcaucasia, Nationalism, and Social Change, ed. Ronald Gregory Suny (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), p. 79.
37.Suny, “Eastern Armenians,” pp. 113, 115; Lynch, Armenia, vol. 1, pp. 233–34; V.A. Diloyan and V.H. Rshtuni, “Arevelyan Hayastane Rusastani kazmum: Tsarizmi gaghutayin kaghakakanutyune” [Eastern Armenia in the Russian System: The Colonial Policy of Tsarism], in Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 5, p. 214.
38.Diloyan and Rshtuni, “Arevelyan Hayastane,” in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, pp. 211, 214.
39.See Suny, “Eastern Armenians,” pp. 115–17.
40.The millet system, as a structural arrangement for community representation and administration, dated back to the Sasanian empire. See R.N. Frye, “The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, pt. 1, The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, ed. Ehsan Yarshater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 132.
41.Lapidus, History, p. 316.
42.Hagop Barsoumian, “The Eastern Question and the Tanzimat Era,” in Hovannisian, Armenian People, vol. 2, pp. 180–82.
43.See Stephan H. Astourian, “Genocidal Process: Reflections on the ArmenoTurkish Polarization,” in The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992), pp. 53–79.
44.See Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957).
45.Maghakia Ormanian, Azgapatum [History of the Nation], vol. 3 (Jerusalem: St. James Press, 1927; reprinted, Antelias: Catholicosate of Cilicia, 2001), col. 4068.
46.Barsoumian, “Eastern Question,” pp. 199–200; Christopher J. Walker, Armenia: The Survival of a Nation (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980), pp. 94–100.
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47.Kemal H. Karpat, “The Transformation of the Ottoman State, 1789–1908,”
International Journal of Middle East Studies 3:3 (July 1972): 243–81.
48.Barsoumian, “Eastern Question,” pp. 199–200; Richard G. Hovannisian, “The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914,” in Hovannisian, Armenian People, p. 203; Walker, Armenia, pp. 100–2, 108–17; Louise Nalbandian,
The Armenian Revolutionary Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), pp. 74–78, 80–85.
49.Christopher Clay, “The Origins of Modern Banking in the Levant: The Branch Network of the Imperial Ottoman Bank, 1890–1914,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 26 (1994): 610; Michelle Raccagni, “The French Economic Interests in the Ottoman Empire,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 11 (1980): 348.
50.Levon A. Bayramyan, Arevmtyan Hayastane Angliakan imperializmi plannerum
[Western Armenia in English Imperialist Plans] (Erevan: Hayastan, 1982).
51.Suny, “Eastern Armenians,” p. 127; Hovannisian, “Armenian Question,”
pp.207–8.
52.See excerpt in Hovannisian, “Armenian Question,” pp. 208–9; Suny, “Eastern Armenians,” p. 127.
53.See Richard Shannon, The Crisis of Imperialism, 1865–1915 (London: Paladin, Granada Publishing, 1974), p. 121; Hovannisian, “Armenian Question,”
pp.209–10; William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890–1902, 2nd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951), p. 151.
54.Hovannisian, “Armenian Question,” p. 210; Akaby Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question, 1915–1923 (London: Croom Helm, 1984), p. 17.
55.Bayramyan, Arevmetyan Hayastane, pp. 113–15; Dwight E. Lee, Great Britain and the Cyprus Convention Policy of 1878 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1934); Anderson, Eastern Question, pp. 204–9.
56.An earlier draft of this section, titled “Sources of Armenian Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire: An Historiographical Assessment,” was presented at the fourth Workshop of Armenian-Turkish Scholarship, Salzburg, Austria, April 15–17, 2005.
57.Eric J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 102.
58.See Fatma Müge Göçek, Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996),
pp.134–37. On Armenian identity, see Razmik Panossian, The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006).
59.Ronald Gregory Suny, Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), p. 21; James Etmekjian, The French Influence on the Western Armenian Renaissance, 1843–1915 (New York: Twayne, 1964), p. 98.
60.Etmekjian, French, pp. 71–74; Minas Tololyan, Ardi Hay grakanutiun, vol. 1: 1850–1920, 2nd pr. (Boston: Steven Day Press, 1977; 1st pr., Cairo: Husaber, 1955), pp. 35–44.
61.Etmekjian, French, pp. 71–72, 73.
62.A.S. Hambaryan, Hay hasarakakan kaghakakan mitke arevmtahayutyan azatagrutyan ughineri masin, xix dari verj-xx dari skizb [Armenian Popular Political Thought Regarding the Ways of Western Armenian Liberation, Late 19thEarly 20th Centuries] (Erevan: Hayastan Press, 1990). See also Andrzej Walicki, A History of Russian Thought from the Enlightenment to Marxism, trans.
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Hilda Andrews-Rusiecka (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1979); Ewa M. Thompson, ed., The Search for Self-Definition in Russian Literature
(Houston: Rice University Press, 1991).
63.Tololyan, Ardi Hay grakanutiun, p. 31.
64.For a useful survey of Armenian literature, see Agop J. Hacikyan et al., eds.,
The Heritage of Armenian Literature, vol. 3: From the Eighteenth Century to Modern Times (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 2005). See also Oshagan, “Modern Armenian Literature,” pp. 139–174.
65.V.D. Azatyan et al., “Bnakan gitutyunner” [Natural Sciences], in Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, ed. Ts.P. Aghayan et al. (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1981), vol. 6, pp. 942–47.
66.Ibid., pp. 948–49, 950–51.
67.See Anaide Ter Minassian, Nationalism and Socialism in the Armenian Revolutionary Movement, 1887–1912 (Cambridge, MA: Zoryan Institute, 1984),
pp.5–6; Nalbandian, Armenian Revolutionary Movement, pp. 90–178, passim; M.G. Nersissyan, Hay zhoghovrdi azatagrakan paykare Turkakan brnapetutyan dem, 1850–1870 [The Armenian People’s Struggle for Liberation against Turkish Tyrannical Rule, 1850–1870] (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1955).
68.Suny, Looking, p. 20.
69.Hovannisian, “Armenian Question,” pp. 218, 222; Christopher J. Walker, “From Sassun to the Ottoman Bank: Turkish Armenians in the 1890s,” Armenian Review 30 (March 1979): 227–64; Johannes Lepsius, Armenia and Europe: An Indictment, trans. and ed. J. Rendel Harris (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1897), pp. 330–31. According to Armen Garo, the total number of Armenians massacred was about 300,000. Armen Garo, “Aprvadz orer” [Days Lived], Hayrenik amsagir 1:9 (July 1923): 94.
70.Lynch, Armenia, vol. 1, p. 459; Suny, “Eastern Armenians,” pp. 128–29; Mary K. Matossian, The Impact of Soviet Policies in Armenia (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1962),
p.19; Manoug Joseph Somakian, Empires in Conflict: Armenia and the Great Powers, 1895–1920 (London: I.B. Tauris, 1995).
71.Suny, “Eastern Armenians,” pp. 115–17.
72.See, for example, Armenian Revolutionary Federation, Bureau, Hushapatum H.H. Dashnaktsutian, 1890–1950 [History of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, 1890–1950] (Boston: Hayrenik, 1950), p. 602.
73.Ibid.; Mikayel Varandyan, Hay Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutyan patmutyun
[History of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation] (Paris: n.p., 1932).
74.Gerard J. Libaridian, “Revolution and Liberation in the 1892 and 1907 Programs of the Dashnaktsutiun,” in Suny, Transcaucasia, pp. 194–97.
75.Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905: Russia in Disarray (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988).
76.D.A. Muradyan, Hayastane Rusakan arajin revolutsiayi tarinerin (1905–1907)
[Armenia During the Years of the First Russian Revolution (1905–1907)] (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1964); Ts.B. Aghayan, Revolutsion sharzhumnere Hayastanum, 1905–1907 [The Revolutionary Movements in Armenia, 1905–1907] (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1955); D.A. Muradyan, “Heghapokhakan sharzhumnere arevelyan Hayastanum, 1905–1907 tvakannerin” [The Revolutionary Movements in Eastern Armenia During the Years 1905–1907], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 6,
pp.368–71.
77.Ter Minassian, Nationalism and Socialism, pp. 13–14, 23–30.