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patmutyun [History of the Armenian People], ed. Ts.P. Aghayan et al. (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1976), vol. 3, p. 673; A.H.M. Jones,
The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937; repr. Sandpiper Books, 1998), pp. 192–97, 210–12.
2.Keith Hopwood, “Policing the Hinterland: Rough Cilicia and Isauria,” in
Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia, ed. Stephen Mitchell (Oxford: B.A.R., 1983), pp. 173–87.
3.Sirarpie Der Nersessian, “The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia,” in A History of the Crusades, vol. 2: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311, ed. Kenneth M. Setton (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962), pp. 630–31.
4.Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” p. 674.
5.T.S.R. Boase, ed., The Cilician Kingdom of Armenia (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1978), p. 2.
6.Angus Donal Stewart, The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy during the Reigns of Het’um II (1289–1307) (Leiden: Brill, 2001), pp. 7–18.
7.Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 631.
8.Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” p. 675; A.K. Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi Haykakan petutyan ev iravunki patmutyun (xi-xiv darer) [History of the Cilician Armenian Government and Jurisprudence (XI-XIV Centuries)] (Erevan: Erevan State University, 1978), pp. 22–23; A.S. Tritton, The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects (London: Frank Cass, 1970), pp. 153–54; Boase, Cilician, p. 4; Seta B. Dadoyan, The Fatimid Armenians: Cultural and Political Interaction in the Near East (Leiden: Brill, 1997).
9.Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” p. 675; Stewart, Armenian, p. 33.
10.Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 345; Hugh Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century (London: Longman, 1986), pp. 309–18.
11.Lapidus, History, pp. 132–36, 349; Kennedy, Prophet, p. 184.
12.Mark Whittow, The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), p. 327; Kennedy, Prophet, pp. 282–84; Stephen W. Reinert, “The Muslim Presence in Constantinople, 9th-15th Centuries: Some Preliminary Observations,” in Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire, ed. Hélène Ahrweiler and Angeliki E. Laiou (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1998), pp. 136–39.
13.Dadoyan, Fatimid, Chs. 2–3, passim; see also Nina G. Garsoian, The Paulician Heresy (The Hague: Mouton, 1967); Vrej Nersessian, The Tondrakian Movement (Allison Park, PA: Pickwick, 1987).
14.Dadoyan, Fatimid, pp. 106–16.
15.Dadoyan, Fatimid, Chs. 4–6, pp. 81–168 passim.
16.Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” p. 677.
17.See Desmond Seward, The Monks of War: The Military Religious Orders, rev. ed. (London: Penguin Books, 1995).
18.S.V. Bornazyan, “Khachakir ordenneri ev Kilikyan Hayastani kaghakakan u tntesakan arnchutyunneri patmutyunits” [From the History of the Political and Economic Relations between the Crusader Orders and Cilician Armenia],
Patma-banasirakan handes 22:3 (1963): 176–84; René Grousset, Histoire des croisades et du royaume franc de Jérusalem, 3 vols. (Paris: Plon, 1934–36); Aziz S. Atiya, “The Crusades: Old Ideas and New Conceptions,” Journal of World History 2:2 (1954): 471–72. For a contemporary observer’s criticism of the role of the Crusaders in Cilicia, see Matthew of Edessa, The Chronicle of Matthew of
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Edessa, trans. Ara E. Dostourian, Armenia and the Crusades (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1993).
19.Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” pp. 677–79; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” pp. 635, 650.
20.See Claude Cahen, La Syrie du Nord à l’époque des croisades (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1940); Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” pp. 680–81.
21.Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” p. 680; Claude Mutafian, “L’enjeu cilicien et les prétentions normandes,” in Autour de la première croisade, ed. Michel Balard (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1996).
22.Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” pp. 637–38; Stewart gives 1145 as the date for Toros’s escape. Stewart, Armenian, p. 34.
23.Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” p. 680; Ani Atamian Bournoutian, “Cilician Armenia,” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 1: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), p. 279; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,”
p.640; Harutiun Ter Ghazarian, Haykakan Kilikia [Armenian Cilicia] (Antelias: Catholicosate of Cilicia, 1966), p. 41; Stewart, Armenian, p. 34.
24.P.M. Holt, The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517 (London: Longman, 1986), pp. 38–52; V.A. Ter-Ghevondyan, “Kilikyan Hayastann u Syrian xii dari 40–70-akan tvakannerin” [Cilician Armenia and Syria during the 40s-70s of the Twelfth Century], Patma-banasirakan handes 2 (1986): 123.
25.Azat Bozoyan, Buzandiayi arevelyan kaghakakanutyune ev Kilikyan Hayastane
[The Eastern Policy of Byzantium and Cilician Armenia] (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1988).
26.A.A. Bozoyan, “Kilikiayi Buzandakan karavarichnere ev Rubenian ishkhanutiune xii dari 40–70-akan tvakannerin” [The Byzantine Governors of Cilicia and the Rubenian Principality during the 40s-70s of the Twelfth Century], Patma-banasirakan handes 3 (1984): 85; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 639.
27.Ter-Ghevondyan, “Kilikyan,” p. 124; Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” pp. 682–83; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 640.
28.Robert Browning, The Byzantine Empire, rev. ed. (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1992), pp. 184–86; 223–54; Steven Runciman, History of the Crusades (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), vol. 3,
pp.121–23; George Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State, trans. Joan Hussey (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1969), pp. 416–17; Bozoyan, “Kilikiayi,” pp. 74–86; Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” p. 680.
29.Bozoyan, “Kilikiayi,” p. 84; Ter-Ghevondyan, “Kilikyan,” pp. 125–27; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 643; Stewart, Armenian, p. 25; Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” pp. 684–85.
30.Runciman, History, vol. 2, pp. 445–64, vol. 3, p. 107; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 40–41.
31.M.K. Zulalyan, “Kilikiayi Haykakan tagavorutyan arajatsume ev nra pokhharaberutyunnere harevan erkrneri het” [The Emergence of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and Its Relations with Southern Neighbors], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 3, p. 689; Runciman, History, vol. 3, p. 77.
32.Stewart, Armenian, p. 34. Sources give different dates for the coronation, ranging from 1196 to 1199. For example, according to Der Nersessian, the coronation took place in 1198, but Zulalyan mentions 1199. See Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 648; Zulalyan, “Haykakan,” pp. 684–85.
33.Dickran Kouymjian, “Armenia from the Fall of the Cilician Kingdom (1375) to the Forced Emigration under Shah Abbas (1604),” in The Armenian People from
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Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), p. 2.
34.S.V. Bornazyan, “Arevture” [The Trade], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 3, pp. 729–32; Stewart, Armenian, p. 34.
35.Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 651.
36.S.V. Bornazyan, “Kaghaknere ev kaghakayin kyanki zargatsume” [The Cities and the Development of Urban Life], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 3, pp. 724–25; Stewart, Armenian, p. 30.
37.S.V. Bornazyan, “Kilikiayi Haykakan petutyan sotsialakan karutsvatske ev hoghatirutyan dzevere” [The Social Structure of the Armenian Government of Cilicia and the Methods of Landownership], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 3, pp. 715–16.
38.S.V. Bornazyan, “Kilikiayi petakan karge” [The Organization of the Government of Cilicia], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 3, pp. 742–45.
39.Ibid., pp. 745–46; Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, pp. 106–13.
40.On different views concerning the foreign influences on the Cilician legal system, see A. Galstyan, review of Rüdt-Collenberg’s work, Patma-banasirakan handes 3 (1964): 167–70; W.H. Rüdt-Collenberg, The Rupenides, Hethumides and Lusignans: The Structure of the Armeno-Cilician Dynasties (Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation Armenian Library; Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1963). See also Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 651; Robert W. Edwards, The Fortifications of Armenian Cilicia (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1987),
pp.47–48 and n37.
41.Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, pp. 181, 203, 206–10. See, for example, on Mekhitar Gosh, Kh.A. Torosyan, “Datavarutyune mijnataryan Hayastanum” [The Court System in Armenia during the Middle Ages], Patma-banasirakan handes 3 (1966): 39–52.
42.Bornazyan, “Petakan karge,” p. 748.
43.Ibid., pp. 748–49; Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, pp. 178, 269–372.
44.Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, pp. 176–77; Bornazyan, “Petakan karge,” p. 748.
45.See Azat A. Bozoyan, “Armenian Political Revival in Cilicia,” in Armenian Cilicia, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian and Simon Payaslian (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, forthcoming), Ch. 3.
46.Ibid.; Robert H. Hewsen, “Armenia Maritima: The Historical Geography of Cilicia,” in Hovannisian and Payaslian, Armenian Cilicia, Ch. 2.
47.Bernard Coulie, “Manuscripts and Libraries: Scriptorial Activity in Cilicia,” in Hovannisian and Payaslian, Armenian Cilicia, Ch. 10; see also Bozoyan, “Armenian Political Revival in Cilicia”; Hewsen, “Armenia Maritima.”
48.Rüdt-Collenberg, Rupenides; Galstyan, review of Rüdt-Collenberg’s book,
pp.167–70. See also Bournoutian, “Cilician,” pp. 281–82. For example, on Baghras, see A.W. Lawrence, “The Castle of Baghras,” in Boase, Cilician,
pp.34–83. See also C.E. Bosworth, “Christian and Jewish Religious Dignitaries in Mamluk Egypt and Syria,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 3:1 (Jan. 1972): 59–74, and 3:2 (April 1972): 199–216.
49.Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 282; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 650; Edwards, Fortifications, pp. 31–32; J.S.C. Riley-Smith, “The Templars and the Teutonic Knights in Cilician Armenia,” in Boase, Cilician, pp. 92–117.
50.Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, pp. 30–31.
51.Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 282.
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52.Ibid., p. 285.
53.Zulalyan, “Kilikiayi Haykakan tagavorutyan arajatsume,” pp. 692–93.
54.Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 285; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 652; Stewart,
Armenian, p. 34.
55.David Morgan, The Mongols (Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
56.Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 652. According to Bornazyan, the Smbat mission to Qaraqorum took place in 1246. See S.V. Bornazyan, “Kilikiayi Haykakan tagavorutyan zoreghatsume ev mijazgayin haraberutyunnere xiii darum” [The Strengthening of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and Its International Relations in the Thirteenth Century], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 3, pp. 699–701.
57.Hakob Manandyan, Erker [Works] (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1977), vol. 3, pp. 131–55, passim.
58.H.A. Stepanyan, “Vrats-Haykakan entvzumnere Tatar-Mongolakan brnadirutyan dem 1247–1249 tt” [Georgian-Armenian Rebellions against Tatar-Mongolian Repression, 1247–1249], Patma-banasirakan handes 1 (1986): 97–105; Stewart, Armenian, p. 44.
59.Bornazyan, “Zoreghatsume,” p. 703; Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 286; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 653.
60.Bornazyan, “Zoreghatsume,” pp. 703–4; Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, pp. 73–75.
61.Holt, Age of the Crusades, pp. 87–88, 93–94.
62.M. Canard, “Le royaume d’Arménie-Cilicie et les Mamelouks jusqu’au traité de 1285,” Revue des études arméniennes 4 (1967): 217–59; Bornazyan, “Zoreghatsume,” pp. 702, 706–7; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 39, 44.
63.Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, pp. 76–77, 109.
64.Ibid., p. 77; Bornazyan, “Zoreghatsume,” p. 701. The size of the Armenian military was about 60,000 but was greater in times of war. Bornazyan, “Petakan karge,” p. 753.
65.Stewart, Armenian, p. 45; Lapidus, History, p. 278.
66.Morgan, Mongols, p. 156; Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, p. 77; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 39, 46–47.
67.Bornazyan, “Zoreghatsume,” pp. 712–13; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 48–49; Bournoutian, “Cilician,” pp. 286–87; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” pp. 653–54.
68.Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, p. 214; S.V. Bornazyan, “Kilikiayi Haykakan tagavorutyan nerkin ev mijazgayin drutyune xiii dari verjerin ev xiv dari skzbin” [The Internal and International Situation of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in the Late Thirteenth Century and the Early Fourteenth Century], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 3, pp. 755–56; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 50–51.
69.Bornazyan, “Nerkin,” pp. 758–59; Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, p. 214; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 53–55.
70.P.M. Holt, “The Treaties of the Early Mamluk Sultans with the Frankish States,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 43:1 (1980): 67–76.
71.Stewart, Armenian, pp. 55–59; Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, pp. 217–25.
72.Claude Mutafian, Le Royaume arménien de Cilicie (Paris: CNRS Editions, 1993).
73.Stewart, Armenian, pp. 60, 94–95.
74.Bornazyan, “Nerkin,” p. 759; Stewart, Armenian, p. 60.
75.Stewart, Armenian, pp. 71–75, 80–81, 97. The marriage of Hetum’s sister into the Lusignan house established close relations between the two families; a generation later the Lusignans inherited the Cilician throne.
76.Stewart, Armenian, pp. 98, 100–2; Der Nersessian, “Kingdom,” p. 257; Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 287; Bornazyan, “Nerkin,” pp. 762–63.
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77.Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 287; Bornazyan, “Nerkin,” p. 764; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 84–87, 103–4.
78.Bornazyan, “Nerkin,” p. 766; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 136–37, 153–56, 159, 164–66; Kouymjian, “Armenia,” p. 33.
79.Al-Ayni, Iqd, vol. 4, p. 48, quoted in Stewart, Armenian, p. 142. Al-bcb alsharqd refers to the eastern gate of Damascus and bcb al-jcbiya, to the western gate.
80.Lapidus, History, p. 279.
81.Sukiasyan, Kilikiayi, p. 87; Bornazyan, “Nerkin,” p. 767; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 173–79.
82.Bornazyan, “Khachakir,” p. 178; Bornazyan, “Nerkin,” pp. 766–67;
S.V. Bornazyan, “Kilikiayi Haykakan tagavorutyan goyamarte xiv darum ev ankume” [The Struggle of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in the Fourteenth Century and Its Fall], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 3,
pp.768–70.
83.Beatrice Forbes Manz, The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989; Canto ed., 1999), p. 73; Warren Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997),
p.782; Lapidus, History, p. 306. See also Charles J. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985).
84.See Avedis K. Sanjian, The Armenian Communities in Syria under Ottoman Dominion (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965).
85.Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 288; Bornazyan, “Goyamarte,” pp. 769, 770–71.
86.Lapidus, History, pp. 280–81; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 185–86; Bornazyan, “Goyamarte,” p. 771.
87.Bornazyan, “Goyamarte,” pp. 772–74.
88.Ibid., pp. 774–75; Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 288.
89.Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 288; Bornazyan, “Goyamarte,” pp. 775–76.
90.Bornazyan, “Goyamarte,” pp. 776–78.
91.David Ayalon, “The Plague and Its Effects upon the Mamluk Army,” in Studies on the Mamluks of Egypt (1250–1517), ed. David Ayalon (London: Variorum Reprints, 1977), pp. 67–73; Holt, Age of the Crusades, pp. 194–95.
92.Bournoutian, “Cilician,” pp. 288–90; Bornazyan, “Goyamarte,” pp. 775–76; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 185–86.
93.Bornazyan, “Goyamarte,” p. 785; Bournoutian, “Cilician,” p. 290; Stewart, Armenian, pp. 185–87.
5 ARMENIA UNDER OTTOMAN, PERSIAN, AND RUSSIAN RULE
1.Beatrice Forbes Manz, The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989; Canto ed., 1999); Levon S. Khachikyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake ev sotsial-tntesakan haraberutyunnere xiv-xv darerum” [The Political Situation in Armenia and Social-Economic Relations in the 14th15th Centuries], in Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, ed. Ts.P. Aghayan et al. (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1972), vol. 4, pp. 24–27.
2.Ira Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 280–81; Manz, Tamerlane, p. 13; Khachikyan, “Hayastani,”