Материал: Payaslian S., The History of Armenia From the Origins to the Present

70.G.Kh. Sargsyan, “Haykakan ashkharhakal terutyune: Tigran B” [The Armenian Imperialist Government: Tigran II], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 556–58.

71.Manandyan and Garsoian note that until recently, historians’ perceptions of the policies of the Tigran the Great were shaped largely by Roman accounts which presented his expansionism as a serious threat to Rome’s interests and were therefore “hostile” in their interpretation of events in Armenia. Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde, pp. 27–31; Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,”

pp.52–59.

72.G. Khalatiantz, Outline History of Armenia (Moscow, 1910), p. 161, as discussed by Manandyan, Trade, p. 53.

73.G.Kh. Sargsyan, “Hay-Hromiakan paterazme” [The Armenian-Roman War], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 580–81; Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde, pp. 52–55.

74.Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,” p. 54; Sargsyan, “Haykakan ashkharhakal terutyune,” p. 558.

75.Sargsyan, “Haykakan ashkharhakal terutyune,” p. 560; Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde, p. 50; Jörg Wagner, “Provincia Osrhoanae,” in Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia, ed. Stephen Mitchell (Oxford: B.A.R., 1983),

pp.103–23; Judah B. Segal, Edessa ‘The Blessed City’ (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), pp. 9–15; A.H.M. Jones, The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 215–26.

76.Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,” p. 54.

77.The precise location of Tigranakert has been a source of much controversy. See T. Rice Holmes, “Tigranocerta,” Journal of Roman Studies 7 (1917): 120–38; Manandyan, Trade, p. 61; Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde, pp. 83–84; Thomas Sinclair, “The Site of Tigranocerta. I,” Revue des études arméniennes, n.s., 25 (1994–95): 183–254; Ronald Syme, “Tigranocerta: A Problem Misconceived,” in Mitchell, Armies and Frontiers, pp. 61–70; Levon Avdoyan, “Tigranocerta: The City ‘Built by Tigranes’,” in Armenian Tigranakert/Diarbekir and Edessa/Urfa, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2006), pp. 81–95.

78.Manandyan, Trade, p. 62.

79.Nikoghayos Adonts, Hayastane Hustinianosi darashrjanum [Armenia during the Period of Justinian] (Erevan: Hayastan, 1987); Armenia in the Period of Justinian, trans. Nina G. Garsoian (Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1970),

p.165. It was in the Arshakuni period, however, that the nakharar system attained its final developed or mature form. According to Krkyasharyan, the system emerged no earlier than the Arshakuni era. See Krkyasharyan, “Petakan aparati kazmavorume,” pp. 225–37.

80.Sargsyan, “Haykakan ashkharhakal terutyune,” p. 570; Manandyan, Trade,

pp.64–65; Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde, pp. 67–72.

81.This system differed from the more centralized political and administrative system developed under Artashes I. Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,”

p.537.

82.Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde, pp. 110–11; Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,”

pp.58–59; Sargsyan, “Hay-Hromiakan paterazme,” p. 583; Syme, “Tigranocerta,” p. 61; Sykes, History, p. 368.

83.Niccolò Machiavelli, The Art of War, rev. ed. Ellis Farneworth, translation, with an introduction by Neal Wood (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books, Da Capo Press, 2001; first published 1521), pp. 52–53.

84.Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,” p. 59.

85.Lang, “Iran,” p. 516; Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde, pp. 148–50, 171–73; Sargsyan, “Hay-Hromiakan paterazme,” pp. 585, 589–90; Sykes, History, p. 368.

86.Bivar, “Political History,” pp. 46–47.

87.Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde, pp. 186, 203–09; Sargsyan, “Hay-Hromiakan paterazme,” p. 602; Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,” p. 59; Sykes, History,

p.370.

88.Sykes, History, p. 371.

89.Ibid., p. 374.

90.Bivar, “Political History,” p. 53; Sargsyan, “Hayastane Artavazd B-i,”

pp.606–7; Sykes, History, p. 374.

91.Bivar, “Political History,” p. 49.

92.Sargsyan, “Hayastane Artavazd B-i,” p. 608; Sykes, History, p. 379.

93.Plutarch, Lives, “Crassus,” trans. Bernadotte Perrin (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1996; first published 1916), III.xxxiii, pp. 420/421.

94.Sykes, History, p. 382.

95.Ibid., p. 387; Bivar, “Political History,” pp. 58–59.

96.Vladimir Minorsky, “Roman and Byzantine Campaigns in Atropatene,”

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 11:2 (1944): 243–65; Sykes,

History, pp. 388–89; Bivar, “Political History,” pp. 64–65.

97.Sargsyan, “Hayastane Artavazd B-i,” p. 622.

98.Ibid., p. 627; Manandyan, Knnakan tesutyun, p. 293;

99.Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde, pp. 39–44.

100.Brian Campbell, “War and Diplomacy: Rome and Parthia, 31 BC-AD 235,” in War and Society in the Roman World, ed. John Rich (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 214–16, 220–25, 228–32.

101.Sargsyan, “Hayastane Artavazd B-i,” p. 629.

102.Ibid., pp. 631, 633; Debevoise, Political History, pp. 143, 147.

2 CULTURE, LANGUAGE, AND WARS OF RELIGION: KINGS, MARZPANS, OSTIKANS

1.Nina Garsoian, “The Ariakuni Dynasty (A.D. 12-[180?]-428),” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 1: The Dynastic Periods, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), p. 64; P.M. Sykes, A History of Persia (London: Macmillan, 1915), p. 403; A.D.H. Bivar, “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, pt. 1, The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, ed. Ehsan Yarshater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 67–69.

2.S.T. Eremyan, “Mets Hayki paykare ankakhutyan hamar Artashesyan dinastiayi ankumits heto” [The Struggle for the Independence of Greater Armenia after the Collapse of the Artashesian Dynasty], in Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun [History of the Armenian People], ed. Ts.P. Aghayan et al. (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1971), vol. 1, pp. 730–31; Bivar, “Political History,” p. 79.

3.Sykes, History, p. 407; Miriam T. Griffin, Nero (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984), pp. 61, 62, 226–27.

4.Bivar, “Political History,” pp. 82–85; S.T. Eremyan, “Tasnamya paterazme Hromyatsineri ev Hay-Partevakan zorkeri mijev” [The Decade-Long War

between the Roman and Armeno-Parthian Forces], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 735, 739, 752; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,”

pp.66–67.

5.Eremyan, “Tasnamya paterazme,” pp. 757, 759; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 67; Sykes, History, p. 408.

6.Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 67; Griffin, Nero, p. 122.

7.Dio, LXII, viii, pp. 142/43, 146/47, in Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” pp. 67–68.

8.Eremyan, “Tasnamya paterazme,” pp. 760, 761–62; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 68.

9.S.T. Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake m.t. ii darum” [The Political Situation in Armenia in the Second Century], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 779–80; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 68.

10.Bivar, “Political History,” pp. 90–91; F.A. Lepper, Trajan’s Parthian War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948); Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 69; Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake m.t. ii darum,” pp. 768–74; Sykes, History,

pp.410–12.

11.Edward N. Luttwak, Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976); on Armenia as a buffer state, see pp. 104–5; on Parthia, pp. 108, 110, 113, 145; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 70.

12.Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 76.

13.On Oriental despotism, see Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957).

14.See S.T. Eremyan, “Mets Hayki tagavorutyan petakan karutsvatske m.t. i-ii darerum” [The State Structure of Greater Armenia in I-II Centuries], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, p. 827.

15.S.Kh. Sargsyan, “Hayastani petakan karge hellenistakan darashrjanum: Kedronakan ishkhanutyune” [The State Order of Armenia during the Period of Hellenism: The Central Government], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 668, 671; Eremyan, “Mets Hayki tagavorutyan,” pp. 823, 825–26; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 76.

16.Sargsyan, “Hayastani petakan,” pp. 672–73; S.T. Eremyan, “Agrarayin haraberutyunnere hin Hayastanum” [The Agricultural Relations in Ancient Armenia], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 797–99; Eremyan, “Mets Hayki tagavorutyan,” pp. 829–35.

17.Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 76.

18.Eremyan, “Mets Hayki tagavorutyan,” pp. 842–43.

19.Hakob A. Manandyan, The Trade and Cities of Armenia in Relation to the Ancient World, 2d rev. ed., trans. Nina G. Garsoian (Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1965), p. 70.

20.Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” pp. 77–78.

21.Ibid.; Eremyan, “Mets Hayki tagavorutyan,” p. 831; Nikoghayos Adonts, Hayastane Hustinianosi darashrjanum [Armenia during the Period of Justinian] (Erevan: Hayastan, 1987); trans. with annotations, Nina G. Garsoian Armenia in the Period of Justinian (Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1970).

22.Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 78; Hakob A. Manandyan, Knnakan tesutyun Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyan [A Critical Review of the History of the Armenian People], vol. 2, pt. 1 (Erevan: Haypethrat, 1957), pp. 327–29.

23.Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” pp. 78–79.

24.Eremyan, “Mets Hayki tagavorutyan,” pp. 840–42.

25.Ibid., pp. 824–25.

26.Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” pp. 70–71.

27.Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake m.t. ii darum,” p. 793.

28.Richard N. Frye, “The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians,” in Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 116–19; Sykes, History, p. 425.

29.Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 75.

30.Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake m.t. ii darum,” p. 794; Frye, “Political History,” p. 125; Sykes, History, pp. 432–33.

31.Cyrill Toumanoff, Studies in Christian Caucasian History (Washington, DC: Georgetown University, 1963); S.T. Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake

iiidari verjin karordum” [The Political Situation in Armenia in the Last Quarter of the Third Century], in Ts.P. Aghayan et al., eds., Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1984), vol. 2, p. 64.

32.J.D. Howard-Johnston, “Byzantine Anzitene,” in Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia, ed. Stephen Mitchell (Oxford: B.A.R., 1983), p. 239; Frye, “Political History,” pp. 124–25, 130; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,”

pp.74–75; R.C. Blockley, East Roman Foreign Policy (Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1992), pp. 5–7; Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake iii dari verjin karordum,” pp. 66, 70.

33.Historians disagree on the reigns of Trdat III and Trdat IV. While traditionally it was believed that the Armenian conversion to Christianity occurred during the reign of Trdat III as Trdat the Great, Manandyan, Toumanoff, and Garsoian maintain that it was Trdat IV who led the conversion.

34.Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake iii dari verjin karordum,” pp. 65, 67, 70.

35.Leo (Arakel Babakhanian), Erkeri zhoghovatsu [Collected Works], vol. 1 (Erevan: Hayastan, 1966), pp. 414–15.

36.Ibid., pp. 416–18.

37.Ibid., pp. 418–19; Blockley, East Roman, pp. 10–11.

38.Blockley, East Roman, pp. 10–11; Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake iii dari verjin karordum,” p. 71; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” pp. 81, 82.

39.Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake iii dari verjin karordum,” pp. 71–72.

40.Leo, Erkeri zhoghovatsu, pp. 423–24; Eremyan, “Tasnamya paterazme,” p. 761; George Bournoutian, A History of the Armenian People (Costa Meza, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1993), vol. 1, p. 63.

41.Leo, Erkeri zhoghovatsu, pp. 420–23; Eremyan, “Hayastani kaghakakan vichake

iiidari verjin karordum,” pp. 77–79; A.G. Adoyan, “Haykakan amusnaentanekan haraberutyunnere mijnadaryan orenknerum” [Armenian Matrimonial-Familial Relations According to the Laws of the Middle Ages],

Patma-banasirakan handes 3 (1965): 50, 51.

42.Adoyan, “Haykakan,” pp. 51–52.

43.Leo, Erkeri zhoghovatsu, pp. 424–28.

44.Ibid., pp. 430–31, 434; S.T. Eremyan, “Paykar Mets Hayki tagavorutyan ankakhutyan hamar” [The Struggle for the Independence of the Greater

K.G. Ghafadaryan, “Dvin kaghaki himnadrman zhamanaki ev Mijnaberdi hetanosakan mehyani masin” [Concerning the Period of the Founding of Dvin City and the Pagan Temple of Mijnaberd], Patma-banasirakan handes 2 (1966): 44–45.

45.Leo, Erkeri zhoghovatsu, pp. 429, 432–33; Mark Whittow, The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), p. 97;

Eremyan, “Paykar Mets Hayki,” p. 106; Blockley, East Roman, pp. 11–12; Frye, “Political History,” p. 137.

46.Blockley, East Roman, pp. 28–29.

47.Adontz, Armenia, p. 34; Rafael Matevosyan, Bagratuniner: Patma-tohmabanakan hanragitaran [Bagratunis: Historic-Genealogical Encyclopedia] (Erevan: Anahit, 1997), p. 84.

48.Frye, “Political History,” p. 138.

49.Adontz, Armenia, p. 93; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 92; Nina G. Garsoian, “The Problem of Armenian Integration into the Byzantine Empire,” in Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire, ed. Hélène Ahrweiler and Angeliki E. Laiou (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1998), p. 54; S.T. Eremyan, “Mets Hayki tagavorutyan trohumn u ankume” [The Division and Fall of the Greater Armenian Kingdom], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 2, p. 120; Iskanyan, Hay-Buzandakan haraberutyunnere, pp. 55–57.

50.Manandyan, Knnakan tesutyun, p. 246; Eremyan, “Mets Hayki tagavorutyan trohumn,” pp. 121–22.

51.Michel Foucault, Le souci de soi (Paris: Gallimard, 1984), as discussed by Averil Cameron, Christianity and the Rhetoric of Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 2–3.

52.Frye, “Political History,” pp. 144–45; Garsoian, “Ariakuni Dynasty,” p. 93.

53.Nina Garsoian, “The Marzpanate,” in Hovannisian, Armenian People, vol. 1, p. 96.

54.For an interesting debate on the causes of the conflict and the role of the Armenian leadership, see Hrant K. Armen, Marzpane ev sparapete [The Governor and the Commander] (Los Angeles: Horizon, 1952); James Mantalian, Vardanants paterazme [The War of Vardanants] (Boston: Hayrenik, 1954).

55.Frye, “Political History,” pp. 146–47; Armen, Marzpane, pp. 205–7; Garsoian, “Marzpanate,” p. 98; Iskanyan, Hay-Buzandakan haraberutyunnere, pp. 68–69.

56.Garsoian, “Marzpanate,” p. 99; Iskanyan, Hay-Buzandakan haraberutyunnere,

pp. 71–76; Armen, Marzpane, pp. 208–12, 232; Mantalian, Vardanants,

pp.221–29, 230–31.

57.Frye, “Political History,” pp. 146–47; Armen, Marzpane, pp. 219–21; Mantalian,

Vardanants, p. 232.

58.Iskanyan, Hay-Buzandakan haraberutyunnere, pp. 83–85; Armen, Marzpane,

pp.223–26; Mantalian, Vardanants, pp. 56–69.

59.Armen, Marzpane, pp. 227–32.

60.Ibid., p. 232.

61.Ibid., pp. 233–35.

62.Eghishe, Vasn Vardanay ev Hayots paterazmin [About Vardan and the Armenian War], ed. E. Ter-Minasyan (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1957), facs. reprod., The History of Vardan and the Armenian War, intro. Robert W. Thomson (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1993), p. 100; Garsoian, “Marzpanate,”

p.100; Armen, Marzpane, pp. 237–39, 242–45.

63.Ehsan Yarshater, “Iranian National History,” in Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 477; Frye, “Political History,” p. 147.

64.Matevosyan, Bagratuniner, pp. 13, 84; Iskanyan, Hay-Buzandakan haraberutyunnere, pp. 94–95, 99, 124–25; Garsoian, “Marzpanate,” pp. 100–2; Frye, “Political History,” p. 149.

65.Garsoian, “Marzpanate,” p. 102.

66.Adoyan, “Haykakan,” p. 53; Iskanyan, Hay-Buzandakan haraberutyunnere,

pp.147–48; H.M. Bartikyan, “Hustinianos A[rajin]i varchakaghakakan u