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degree of transparency and representation necessary to serve as a legitimate mechanism for mediation. The Dashnaktsutiun, for example, which was excluded from the process, most vehemently opposed it. This is not to say that TARC did not produce positive results. It commissioned an independent study by the International Center for Transitional Justice (ICTJ) to determine whether the UN Genocide Convention could in fact be retroactively applicable to the Armenian case. The ICTJ correctly concluded that “the Events, viewed collectively, can thus be said to include all of the elements of the crime of genocide as defined in the Convention,” but it also added that the Convention does not permit retroactive compensation for damages.76 By early 2002, the TARC experiment appeared to have failed as an approach to Armenian-Turkish reconciliation, although one could argue that it was successful at least in setting the process in motion. Given Armenia’s need for wider economic relations in the region and Turkey’s need for economic development and for improved image in Europe, policymakers in both countries will be reluctant to shelve TARC permanently. It will most likely reappear in a different form, with the necessary adjustments effectuated according to assessments of the first experiment.
After seven decades of Soviet rule, Armenia regained its independence. Armenians worldwide celebrated the rebirth of the small bit of land that they inherited from the generation of genocide survivors and survivors of catastrophes at the hands of Turkish and Russian rulers. Having gained independence, however, internal difficulties, exacerbated first by efforts to recover from the earthquake in December 1988 and the war in Karabagh, rendered the task of building a modern state extremely difficult. It remains to be seen whether changes in government will lead to improvements and whether the political leadership and political culture will bring about fundamental improvements in the standard of living and democratization. Closer diaspora-homeland relations since 1991 have indicated that Armenian culture (e.g., language, religion) remains an essential part of the nation’s struggle for national survival, and the republic, despite its shortcomings, is likely to reconnect diasporan Armenians with their cultural roots and homeland. As the Karabagh war has demonstrated, Armenia in the twenty-first century, as in the bygone years of monarchs and nakharars centuries earlier, remains caught between powerful neighbors and distant empires, and their geopolitical competitions directly shape the nation’s domestic politics and foreign policy.
1 DYNASTIES AND THE GEOPOLITICS OF EMPIRE: THE ERVANDUNI AND THE ARTASHESIAN DYNASTIES
1.L.W. King and R.C. Thompson, The Sculptures and Inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock of Behistûn in Persia (London: Harrison and Sons, 1907), p. xxxviii; P.M. Sykes, A History of Persia (London: Macmillan, 1915), pp. 169–73.
2.King and Thompson, Sculptures, pp. 27–28, 31–32.
3.Igor M. Diakonoff, Pre-History of the Armenian People, trans. Lori Jennings (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1984), pp. 6–7, 19–21, 58–67; the quote appears on page 65.
4.S.T. Eremyan, “Hayasa-Azzii teghvoroshume, etnikakan kazme ev lezun” [The Location of Hayasa-Azzi, Its Ethnic Composition and Language], in Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun [History of the Armenian People], ed. Ts.P. Aghayan et al. (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1971), vol. 1, p. 191.
5.Boris B. Piotrovski, Urartu: The Kingdom of Van, trans. and ed. Peter S. Gelling (London: Evelyn Adams and Mackay, 1967); N.V. Arutyunyan, Biainili (Urartu) (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1970).
6.Adam T. Smith and Karen S. Rubinson, eds., Archaeology in the Borderlands: Investigations in Caucasia and Beyond (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003), esp. chapter by Ruben S. Badalyan, Adam T. Smith, and Pavel S. Avetisyan, “The Emergence of Sociopolitical Complexity in Southern Caucasia”; S.T. Eremyan, “Hay zhoghovrdi kazmavorman avarte ev Haykakan arajin petakan kazmavorumnere” [The Completion of the Formation of the Armenian People and the Formations of the First Armenian State], in Aghayan,
Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, p. 440.
7.Robert H. Hewsen, “The Geography of Armenia,” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 1: The Dynastic Periods, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), pp. 1–17.
8.Hakob A. Manandyan, The Trade and Cities of Armenia in Relation to the Ancient World, 2nd rev. ed., trans. Nina G. Garsoian (Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1965).
9.Artak E. Movsisyan, Vani tagavorutyan (Biaynili, Urartu, Ararat) mehenagrutyune
(Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1998); N.V. Harutyunyan, “Urartun arajavor Asiayi hzoraguyn petutyun” [Urartu as the Strongest Government in Asia], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 300–1.
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10.Boris B. Piotrovski, The Ancient Civilization of Urartu, trans. James Hogarth (London: Cresset Press, 1969).
11.J.P. Mallory, In Search of the Indo-Europeans (London: Thames and Hudson, 1989).
12.Boris B. Piotrovski, “Arvest, kron, gir, grakanutyun” [Profession, Religion, Letters, Literature], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 407–13, 415–19.
13.Harutyunyan, “Urartun arajavor Asiayi,” p. 304.
14.N.V. Harutyunyan, “Urartui sotsial-tntesakan karge, petakan karutsvatske ev kaghaknere: Sotsial-tntesakan karge” [The Social-Economic Order in Urartu, the State Structure and the Cities: The Social-Economic Order], in Aghayan,
Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 338–39.
15.Ibid., pp. 340–42.
16.N.V. Harutyunyan, “Urartui sotsial-tntesakan karge, petakan karutsvatske ev kaghaknere: petakan karutsvatske” [The Social-Economic Order in Urartu, the State Structure and the Cities: The State Structure], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 344–46.
17.N.V. Harutyunyan, “Urartun m.t.a. viii dari verjin ev vii darum” [Urartu in the Late Eighth Century and in the Seventh Century B.C.], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 332–37.
18.Robert Collins, The Medes and Persians, Conquerors and Diplomats (London: Cassell, 1974); Nina Garsoian, “The Emergence of Armenia,” in Hovannisian,
Armenian People, vol. 1, p. 38.
19.Eremyan, “Hay zhoghovrdi kazmavorman avarte,” p. 443.
20.Ibid., pp. 423–24, 439; Diakonoff, Pre-History, passim.
21.David M. Lang, “Iran, Armenia and Georgia,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, pt. 1, The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, ed. Ehsan Yarshater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 506–7; Cyril Toumanoff,
Studies in Christian Caucasian History (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1963), pp. 277–354.
22.Xenophon, Anabasis, with Eng. trans. Carleton L. Brownson (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1992; first published 1922), II.iv.8; III.iv.13.
23.Lang, “Iran,” pp. 506–7.
24.G.A. Tiratsyan, “Haykakan mshakuyte vi-iv darerum” [The Armenian Culture in the Sixth-Fourth Centuries (B.C.)], and “Hayastane vagh hellenizmi zhamanakashrjanum” [Armenia during the Early Period of Hellenism], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 464–78, 504, 529.
25.Eremyan, “Hay zhoghovrdi kazmavorman avarte,” pp. 437–38.
26.Andrew Robert Burn, Persia and the Greeks: The Defence of the West, c. 546–478
B.C. (London: E. Arnold, 1962, repr. 1970).
27.Sykes, History, pp. 171–72.
28.G.A. Tiratsyan, “Hayastane Akemenyan Parskastani tirapetutyan nerko” [Armenia under Achaemenian Persian Rule], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 448–50, 454; Tiratsyan, “Haykakan mshakuyte vi-iv darerum,” p. 471.
29.Tiratsyan, “Hayastane Akemenyan,” pp. 452, 455; Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,” pp. 40, 41; Sykes, History, pp. 173–74.
30.Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,” p. 41; Lang, “Iran,” pp. 508–9; Sykes, History, pp. 173–74.
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31.Manandyan, Trade, p. 21; Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,” p. 41.
32.Tiratsyan, “Hayastane Akemenyan,” pp. 446–50.
33.Richard N. Frye, “Continuing Iranian Influences on Armenian,” in Ycd- Ncme-ye Ircnd-ye Minorsky, ed. Mujtabá Mdnovd and Draj Afshcr (Tehran: Tehran University, 1969), pp. 80–89; A. Meillet, “De l’influence parthe sur le langue arménienne,” Revue des études arméniennes 1 (Paris, 1920): 9; Robert Bedrosian, Armenia in Ancient and Medieval Times (New York: Armenian National Education Committee, 1985), p. 23; Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,” p. 42.
34.James Russell, “The Formation of the Armenian Nation,” in Hovannisian,
Armenian People, vol. 1, p. 24.
35.Manandyan, Trade, p. 44; Hakob Manandyan, Knnakan tesutyun Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyan [Critical Review of the History of the Armenian People] (Erevan: Haibedhrad, 1944), vol. 1, pp. 92–93; S.M. Krkyasharyan, “Ervanduni arkayatohme Hayastanum” [The Ervanduni Dynasty in Armenia], Patma-banasirakan handes 4:1 (1973): 179–85.
36.Edouard Will, Histoire politique du monde hellénistique, 2 vols. (Nancy: University of Nancy, 1966–67); Tiratsyan, “Hayastane vagh hellenizmi zhamanakashrjanum,” p. 502; Manandyan, Trade, pp. 34, 40, 53; Manandyan,
Knnakan tesutyun, p. 97.
37.See Russell, “Formation,” p. 36; Toumanoff, Studies, pp. 293–94. See also Zh.G. Elchibekyan, “Ervandunineri tsagman hartsi shurj” [On the Question Concerning the Origins of the Ervandunis], Patma-banasirakan handes 53:2 (1971): 107–13.
38.G.A. Tiratsyan, “Ervandyan Hayastani taratske (m.t.a. vi dar)” [The Expanse of the Ervanduni Armenia (Sixth Century B.C.)], Patma-banasirakan handes 91:4 (1980): 92; Tiratsyan, “Ervandyan Hayastani taratske (m.t.a. vi d. verj-m.t.a. iii
d.verj)” [The Expanse of the Ervanduni Armenia (Late Sixth Century B.C.-Late Third Century B.C.)], Patma-banasirakan handes 93:2 (1981): 68–84.
39.Tiratsyan, “Hayastane vagh hellenizmi zhamanakashrjanum,” p. 519; S.M. Krkyasharyan, “Petakan aparati kazmavorume ev nra hetaga zargatsman pule hin Hayastanum” [The Formation of State Apparatus and Its Future Development Phase in Ancient Armenia], Patma-banasirakan handes 1–2 (1994): 225–37; Rafael Matevosyan, Bagratuniner: Patma-tohmabanakan hanragitaran
[Bagratunis: Historic-Genealogical Encyclopedia] (Erevan: Anahit, 1997),
p.98.
40.Manandyan, Trade, p. 37; E. Bickerman, “The Seleucid Period,” in Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 3–20.
41.Tiratsyan, “Hayastane vagh hellenizmi zhamanakashrjanum,” pp. 514–15.
42.S.T. Eremyan, “Haykakan arajin petakan kazmavorume” [The Formation of the First Armenian State], Patma-banasirakan handes 3 (1968): 91–119.
43.Tiratsyan, “Hayastane vagh hellenizmi zhamanakashrjanum,” p. 517; B.N. Arakelyan, “Vortegh en gtnvel Ervandashat ev Ervandakert kaghaknere?” [Where were the Cities of Ervandashat and Ervandakert Located?], Patmabanasirakan handes 30 (1965): 83–93.
44.Manandyan, Trade, pp. 36–38; Tiratsyan, “Hayastane vagh hellenizmi zhamanakashrjanum,” pp. 514, 519; Arakelyan, “Vortegh en gtnvel?” p. 84.
45.Manandyan, Trade, pp. 42–43.
46.Tiratsyan, “Hayastane vagh hellenizmi zhamanakashrjanum,” pp. 515, 520; Matevosyan, Bagratuniner, pp. 11–12.
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47.Tiratsyan, “Hayastane vagh hellenizmi zhamanakashrjanum,” p. 516; G.Kh. Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume ev hzoratsume Artashes A[rajin]i orov” [The Unification and Strengthening of Armenia during the Reign of Artashes I], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, p. 522; Lang, “Iran,” pp. 510, 512.
48.Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,” pp. 524–25; Sykes, History, pp. 345–46; Lang, “Iran,” pp. 512–13; A.D.H. Bivar, “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids,” in Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 28–29.
49.G.Kh. Sargsyan, “Hayastani petakan karge hellenistakan darashrjanum: Kedronakan ishkhanutyune” [The State Order of Armenia during the Period of Hellenism: The Central Government], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 669–70, 672.
50.Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,” pp. 537–38; Sargsyan, “Kedronakan ishkhanutyune,” pp. 671, 673.
51.Sargsyan, “Kedronakan ishkhanutyune,” pp. 673, 674; Sargsyan, “Petakan karutsvatski tarrer” [Elements of State Structure], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, p. 679.
52.G.Kh. Sargsyan, “Hayastani sotsial-tntesakan karge hellenistakan darashrjanum” [The Social-Economic Order during the Period of Hellenism], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, pp. 656–57.
53.Ibid., p. 660; Lang, “Iran,” p. 509.
54.Manandyan, Trade, pp. 46–49; Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,” pp. 526–38, 539.
55.Sargsyan, “Hayastani sotsial-tntesakan karge,” p. 641.
56.A.G. Adoyan, “Haykakan amusna-entanekan haraberutyunnere mijnadaryan orenknerum” [Armenian Marriage-Family Relations in the Laws of the Middle Ages], Patma-banasirakan handes 3 (1965): 49.
57.Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,” p. 539; Sargsyan, “Hayastani sotsialtntesakan karge hellenistakan darashrjanum,” p. 663; Sargsyan, “Kedronakan ishkhanutyune,” pp. 675, 677.
58.Sargsyan, “Kedronakan ishkhanutyune,” p. 637.
59.Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,” pp. 531, 534, 536–37.
60.Ibid., pp. 534–36.
61.Manandyan, Trade, p. 53.
62.Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,” p. 543.
63.Hakob A. Manandyan, Tigran Erkrorde ev Hrome [Tigran II and Rome] (Erevan: Erevan State University, 1972), p. 50.
64.Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,” pp. 544–47. See also Bivar, “Political History,” pp. 28–29.
65.Garsoian, “Emergence of Armenia,” p. 49.
66.Neilson C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938), pp. 249–54; Richard N. Frye, “The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians,” in Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 120.
67.Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,” pp. 552–53.
68.According to Lang, Artashes I was succeeded by Tigran I (159–123 B.C.), followed by Artavazd I (123–95). Lang, “Iran,” p. 513.
69.Sargsyan, “Hayastani miyavorume,” p. 551; Sargsyan, “Hayastane Artavazd B-i ev nra hajordneri zhamankashrjanum” [Armenia during the Period of Artavazd II and His Successors], in Aghayan, Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, vol. 1, p. 607.