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50.Payaslian, United States, pp. 161–70; Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 2, pp. 401–2, 431–33.
51.Ruben G. Sahakyan, Turk-Fransiakan haraberutyunnere ev Kilikian 1919–1921 tt.
[Turkish-French Relations and Cilicia, 1919–1921] (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1970); Paul du Véou, La passion de la Cilicie, 1919–1922, rev. ed. (Paris: Librarie Orientaliste, 1954); Robert Farrer Zeidner, “The Tricolor Over the Taurus: The French in Cilicia and Vicinity, 1918–1922,” Ph.D. diss., University of Utah, 1991; Edouard Brémond, “The Brémond Mission, Cilicia in 1919–1920,” Armenian Review, part I, 29 (Winter 1976–1977): 339–72; Brémond, “The Brémond Mission, Cilicia in 1919–1920,” Armenian Review, part II, 30 (Spring 1977): 34–72; Kinross, Ataturk, pp. 202–4.
52.On British policy toward Armenian issues within the context of regional geopolitical considerations, see, for example, Briton Cooper Busch, Mudros to Lausanne: Britain’s Frontier in West Asia, 1918–1923 (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1976); Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971). For a historical perspective, see Levon A. Bayramyan, Arevmetyan Hayastane Angliakan imperializmi plannerum [Western Armenia in British Imperialist Plans] (Erevan: Hayastan, 1982); and Ram Lakhan Shukla, Britain, India and the Turkish Empire 1853–1882
(New Delhi: People’s Publishing House, 1973).
53.Payaslian, United States, pp. 170–71; Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 2, pp. 501, 512, 518–19.
54.On the London Conference in general, see Paul C. Helmreich, From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920
(Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1974). On matters pertaining to Armenia, see Avetis Aharonian, Sardarapatits minchev Sevr ev Lozan [From Sardarapat to Sèvres and Lausanne] (Boston: Hayrenik, 1943); Richard G. Hovannisian, The Republic of Armenia, vol. 3: From London to Sèvres, February–August 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 21–27.
55.Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 3, pp. 51–66.
56.Payaslian, United States, pp. 175–76.
57.Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 3, pp. 90–93, 106.
58.Simon Vratsian, “How Armenia Was Sovietized,” Armenian Review 1:2 (1948): 81; Matossian, Impact, p. 27; Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 3, p. 210.
59.See Khikar H. Barseghyan, Hayastani komunistakan partiayi kazmavorume [The Formation of the Communist Party of Armenia] (Erevan: Hayastan, 1965); Gevorg B. Gharibjanyan, Hayastani komunistakan kazmakerputyunnere Sovetakan ishkhanutyan haghtanaki mghvats paykarum [The Communist Organizations in Armenia during the Struggle for the Victory of the Soviet Government] (Erevan: Hayastan, 1955).
60.Karo Sasuni, Mayisian khrovutiunnere ev Tatarakan apstamb shrjannere [The May Disturbances and the Rebellious Tatar Districts] (Beirut: Sevan, 1968); Hovhannes S. Karapetyan, Mayisyan apstambutyune Hayastanum, 1920 [The May Rebellion in Armenia, 1920] (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1961); A.H. Melkonyan, Mayisyan apstambutyan patmutyan hartsi shurj
[Regarding the Issue of the History of the May Rebellion] (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1965).
61.Grigor A. Hovhannisyan, Sovetakan ishkhanutyan hastatume Lernayin Gharabaghum [The Establishment of Soviet Government in Mountainous Karabagh] (Erevan: Erevan State University, 1971), pp. 140–42.
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62.Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 3, pp. 222–24, 235–47.
63.Ibid., pp. 279, 284–85.
64.Ibid., pp. 290–324 passim.
65.Payaslian, United States, pp. 179–80.
66.Richard G. Hovannisian, The Republic of Armenia, vol. 4: Between Crescent and Sickle: Partition and Sovietization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), p. 33.
67.Ibid., pp. 40–44 n105; Payaslian, United States, pp. 180–82.
68.Vaveragrer, Girk G, Doc. 108, pp. 177–78; Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 4, pp. 188–96, 267–69. See also Edik A. Zohrapyan, 1920 t. Turk-Haykakan paterazme ev terutyunnere [The Turkish-Armenian War of 1920 and the Powers] (Erevan: Oskan Erevantsi, 1997); Zohrapyan, Sovetakan Rusastane ev HayTurkakan haraberutyunnere, 1920–1922 tt. [Soviet Russia and Armenian-Turkish Relations, 1920–1922] (Erevan: Erevan State University, 1979); Saribek Karapetyan, 1920 tvakani Hay-Turkakan paterazme ev Sovetakan Rusastane [The Armenian-Turkish War of 1920 and Soviet Russia] (Erevan: Hayastan, 1965).
69.Artashes Badalian, “Karsi ankume” [The Fall of Kars], Hayrenik amsagir 1 (Oct. 1923): 52–68; Dikran Baghdasarian (Tigran Paghtasarian), “Hayastani Hanrapetutian verjaluysin” [At the Twilight of the Republic of Armenia], in Ejer mer azatagrakan patmutenen [Pages from Our National Liberation Movement] (Paris: Union of Armenian Volunteers and Soldiers, 1937), pp. 193–280.
70.Vratsian, Hayastani Hanrapetutiun, pp. 428–31; Karo Sasuni, Hay-Trkakan paterazme 1920-in [The Armenian-Turkish War in 1920] (Beirut: Hamazkayin, 1969), pp. 100–17; Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 4, pp. 249–58, 270–71, 291.
71.Vaveragrer, Girk G, Doc. 112, pp. 180–81.
72.Khatisian, Hayastani Hanrapetutian, pp. 252–57, 260–69; Vratsian, Hayastani Hanrapetutiun, pp. 510–20.
73.See the text in Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 4, p. 364.
74.Ibid., pp. 368, 370–71.
75.H.M. Elchipekyan, “Sovetakan ishkhanutyan hastatume Hayastanum” [The Establishment of the Soviet Government in Armenia], in Hay zhoghovrdi patmutyun, ed. Ts.P. Aghayan et al. (Erevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1967), vol. 7, pp. 116–21.
76.Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 4, pp. 369, 379, 385–87; Matossian, Impact, p. 28.
77.Ronald Grigor Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), pp. 348–50; H. Marmandian, “The Exile of the Armenian Army Officers,” Armenian Review 11 (Spring 1958): 102–15. In early 1922 famine and death continued unabated; about 200,000 people were reported starving, and in some regions, such as Dilijan, nearly 100 died each day. Matossian, Impact, p. 53.
78.Karo Sasuni, Petrvarian apstambutiune, 1921 [The February Rebellion, 1921] (Beirut: Hamazkayin, 1970); Ervand Hayrapetian, “The February 18, 1921 Armenian Revolt,” Armenian Review, part II, 10 (Summer 1957): 101–20; parts IV-VI, 11 (Spring-Autumn 1958): 143–52, 153–60, 151–56; Matossian, Impact, pp. 29–30.
79.Bakhshi Ishkhanian, Erku amis bolshevikyan bantum [Two Months in Bolshevik Prison] (Cairo: Husaber, 1924).
80.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 351.
81.Hovannisian, Republic, vol. 4, pp. 405–6; Matossian, Impact, p. 30.
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8 THE LENINIST-STALINIST LEGACY: SEVENTY YEARS OF SOVIET RULE
1.Ronald Grigor Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” in Richard G. Hovannisian, ed., The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), pp. 348, 353; Mary K. Matossian, The Impact of Soviet Policies in Armenia (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1962), Ch. 2, passim.
2.Matossian, Impact, p. 53; Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 351–52.
3.Matossian, Impact, p. 55.
4.Adam B. Ulam, Stalin: The Man and His Era (New York: Viking Press, 1973), pp. 204–5; on Ordjonikidze as “satrap of the Caucasus,” see 214, 220–21; Bertram D. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution, rev. ed. (New York: Dell, 1964), p. 436; Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997 [1954]), pp. 221–25.
5.Matossian, Impact, pp. 37–39. Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 353.
6.Richard G. Hovannisian, The Republic of Armenia, vol. 4: Between Crescent and Sickle: Partition and Sovietization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), p. 391.
7.Matossian, Impact, pp. 39–40.
8.Ibid., pp. 37–42, 78–95; Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 351, 355.
9.Hayastani Hanrapetutyun, Arvesti, Grakanutyan ev Mamuli Pastatghteri Petakan Kentronakan Arkhiv [Republic of Armenia, State Central Archives of Art, Literature, and Media], Vaveragrer Hay ekeghetsu patmutyan, Girk G:
Artak Episkopos Smbatyants: Hogevor, grakan, patma-banakan gortsuneutyune ev gndakaharutyune (1876–1937 tt.) [Documents of the History of the Armenian Church, Book 3: Bishop Artak Smbatyants: His Spiritual, Literary, Historical-Philological Works and Execution (1867–1937)], comp. Sandro Behbudyan (Erevan: Anahit, 1999), Docs. 123, 124, pp. 195–96, 197–98.
10.Matossian, Impact, pp. 55–57, 58.
11.Ibid., p. 57; Astghik Mirzakhanyan, “Economic and Social Development,” in
The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity, ed. Edmund Herzig and Marina Kurkchiyan (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 197.
12.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 353; Levon Chorbajian, Patrick Donabedian, and Claude Mutafian, The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of NagornoKarabagh (London: Zed Books, 1994), p. 136.
13.Chorbajian, Caucasian Knot, p. 136.
14.Ibid., p. 138.
15.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 356–57.
16.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 358–59.
17.Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” p. 198; Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 359.
18.Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” p. 198.
19.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 362.
20.Ibid., p. 364; Matossian, Impact, p. 173.
21.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 364–65.
22.Vaveragrer, Girk G, Docs. 127, 141, pp. 201–7, 235–39.
23.Ibid., Docs. 135, 136, pp. 217–18, 218–20.
24.S. Surgunyan, “Lrtesutyan orje” [The Den of Espionage], Proletar (Tiflis), June 11, 1938, p. 2, in Vaveragrer Hay ekeghetsu patmutyan (1938–1955), Girk Z: Gevorg Z
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Chorekchyan, Katoghikos Amenayn Hayots [Documents of the History of the Armenian Church (1938–1955), Book 6: Gevorg VI Chorekchyan, Catholicos of All Armenians], ed. and comp. Santro Behbudyan (Erevan: Oskan Erevantsi, 1999), Doc. 4, pp. 13–16.
25.Matossian, Impact, p. 149.
26.Ibid., pp. 149–50, 161; Vahe Sarafian, “The Soviet and the Armenian Church,”
Armenian Review 8:2 (1955): 97.
27.Vaveragrer, Girk G., Docs. 120, 121, 123, 125, 378, pp. 191–94, 195–96, 199–200, 436–37, 614.
28.Ibid., pp. 617–30.
29.Ibid., pp. 631–32.
30.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 365–67.
31.Matossian, Impact, pp. 194–95.
32.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 368.
33.Chorbajian, Caucasian Knot, p. 145.
34.Matossian, Impact, p. 166.
35.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 367.
36.Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” p. 198.
37.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 371.
38.Hedrick Smith, The New Russians (New York: Random House, 1990), pp. 8–9, 14–15.
39.Richard F. Staar, Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 4th ed. (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1982), p. 137; Michael G. Roskin, The Rebirth of East Europe, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1994), p. 101.
40.Buzant Eghiayan, Zhamanakakits patmutiun Katoghikosutian Hayots Kilikio, 1914–1972 [Contemporary History of the Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia, 1914–1972] (Antelias: Catholicosate of Cilicia, 1975), pp. 663–83; R. Hrair Dekmejian, “The Armenian Diaspora,” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), p. 418; Matossian, Impact, p. 208. See also “The Catholicosate of Cilicia, Her Place and Status in the Armenian Church: Text of an Official Statement of the Catholicosate of Cilicia, Antelias, Lebanon,” Armenian Review 15:1 (Spring 1962): 11–26.
41.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 372–73.
42.Ibid., p. 373.
43.Supreme Soviet of Armenia, Haykakan SSR hingerord gumarman geraguyn Soveti nistere [The Fifth Conference of the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian S[oviet] S[ocialist] R[epublic], 3rd sess., March 24–25, 1960 (Erevan: Presidium, Supreme Soviet of Armenia, 1960), pp. 6–7.
44.Ibid., pp. 10–32.
45.Ibid., pp. 157–98.
46.Ronald Gregory Suny, “On the Road to Independence: Cultural Cohesion and Ethnic Revival in a Multinational Society,” in Transcaucasia, Nationalism, and Social Change: Essays in the History of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, ed. Ronald Gregory Suny (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), p. 392.
47.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 376–77.
48.Chorbajian, Caucasian Knot, pp. 145–46.
49.Staar, Communist Regimes, pp. 71–72; Roskin, East Europe, pp. 118–20.
50.Suny, “On the Road to Independence,” p. 379.
51.Chorbajian, Caucasian Knot, pp. 146–47.
52.Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 377; Soviet News, Feb. 13, 1977, p. 44; New York Times, Feb. 3, 1980, p. 29.
Notes |
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53.Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” p. 198.
54.Marina Kurkchiyan, “Society in Transition,” in Herzig and Kurkchiyan, Armenians, pp. 216–17.
55.Simon Payaslian, “Hovannes Shiraz, Paruyr Sevak, and the Memory of the Armenian Genocide,” Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies (forthcoming).
56.Kurkchiyan, “Society,” pp. 216–17.
57.Matossian, Impact, pp. 63–64.
58.Quoted in Mark R. Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 57.
59.Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs, trans. Georges Peronasky and Tatjana Varsavsky (New York: Doubleday, 1996), p. 168.
60.Smith, New Russians, pp. 14–15.
61.Simon Payaslian, “From Perestroika to Uncertainty: Will Gorbachev’s Experiment Survive Forces Pounding at Kremlin Gates?” Armenian International Magazine (July 1990): 42–44 (hereafter AIM).
62.Smith, New Russians, pp. 326–27.
63.Hakob Asatrian, “The Other Jolt,” AIM (Dec. 1993): 30–31.
64.See, for example, Marshall I. Goldman, U.S.S.R. in Crisis: The Failure of an Economic System (New York: W.W. Norton, 1983); Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Grand Failure (New York: Collier Books, 1990).
65.Quoted in Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, p. 58.
66.Ibid., pp. 58–59.
67.Ibid., pp. 58, 60–61. Italics in the original.
68.Payaslian, “From Perestroika,” pp. 42–44.
69.Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver, “Population Redistribution and the Ethnic Balance in Transcaucasia,” in Suny, Transcaucasia, p. 503.
70.Chorbajian, Caucasian Knot, p. 156.
71.Ibid., p. 149; Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” p. 379; Lalig Papazian, “A People’s Will: Armenian Irredentism over Nagorno-Karabagh,” in Levon Chorbajian, ed.,
The Making of Nagorno-Karabagh: From Secession to Republic (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), pp. 68–69; Joseph R. Masih and Robert O. Krikorian, Armenia at the Crossroads (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1999), pp. 4–7.
72.Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, p. 186.
73.Samvel Shahmuratian, comp. and ed. The Sumgait Tragedy: Pogroms against Armenians in Soviet Azerbaijan, trans. Steven Jones (New Rochelle, NY: Aristide D. Caratzas; Cambridge, MA: Zoryan Institute, 1990).
74.Smith, New Russians, p. 337.
75.Shahmuratian, Sumgait, pp. 38, 56, 179–80, 224, 261.
76.Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, pp. 66–69.
77.Quoted in Brzezinski, Grand Failure, p. 90.
78.Gerard J. Libaridian, Modern Armenia: People, Nation, State (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2004), p. 206.
79.Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, p. 187.
80.Ibid., pp. 187–88, 390–91.
81.Marina Kurkchiyan, “The Karabagh Conflict: From Soviet Past to post-Soviet Uncertainty,” in Herzig and Kurkchiyan, Armenians, p. 154.
82.Razmik Panossian, “The Diaspora and the Karabagh Movement: Oppositional Politics between the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and the Armenian National Movement,” in Chorbajian, Making of Nagorno-Karabagh, p. 159.
83.See the text in Gerard J. Libaridian, ed., Armenia at the Crossroads (Watertown, MA: Blue Crane, 1991), Appendix A/1, pp. 127–29.