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84.Panossian, “Diaspora and the Karabagh Movement,” p. 161.
85.Michael P. Croissant, Armenian-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998), p. 33.
86.Chorbajian, Caucasian Knot, p. 155.
87.Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, p. 188.
88.Croissant, Armenian-Azerbaijan Conflict, p. 35; Thomas de Waal, Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War (New York: New York University Press, 2003), pp. 108–9.
89.Kurkchiyan, “Karabagh,” p. 155; Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 381–82; Chorbajian,
Caucasian Knot, pp. 155–56; Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, pp. 189–90.
90.Dekmejian, “The Armenian Diaspora,” pp. 413–35; Robin Cohen, Global Diasporas (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), Figure 2.1, p. 48.
91.Asatrian, “The Other Jolt,” 30–31.
92.Suren Deherian, “Unlucky Anniversary: Gumri Marks 13 Years as a Disaster Zone,” AIM (Jan.–Feb. 2002): 45.
93.For a brief background, see Betsy Gidwitz, “Labor Unrest in the Soviet Union,” Problems of Communism (Nov.–Dec. 1982): 33–34; see also Stephen Crowley, Hot Coal, Cold Steel: Russian and Ukrainian Workers from the End of the Soviet Union to the Post-Communist Transformations (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997), pp. 25–45; Peter Rutland, “Labor Unrest and Movements in 1989 and 1990,” Soviet Economy 6:3 (1990): 354.
94.Payaslian, “From Perestroika,” pp. 42–44.
95.Ibid.
96.Ibid.
97.Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, p. 392.
98.Payaslian, “From Perestroika,” pp. 42–44; Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993); Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Rasma Karklins,
Ethnopolitics and Transition to Democracy: The Collapse of the USSR and Latvia
(Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1994).
99.See Vera Tolz, The USSR in 1990: A Record of Events (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 807–8.
100.Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, p. 405.
101.Masih and Krikorian, Armenia, pp. 11–12; Libaridian, Modern Armenia, pp. 207–8.
102.Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, p. 404.
103.Helsinki Watch, Bloodshed in the Caucasus, p. 8.
104.Payaslian, “From Perestroika,” pp. 42–44.
105.Libaridian, Modern Armenia, p. 208. Suny, “Soviet Armenia,” pp. 383, 385–86.
106.Rossiiskaia gazeta, Dec. 12, 1991, p. 1, cited in Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization, p. 386.
9 INDEPENDENCE AND DEMOCRACY: THE SECOND REPUBLIC
1.Robert Mirak, “The Armenians in America,” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2: Foreign Dominion to Statehood, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), p. 403; Gerard J. Libaridian,
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The Challenge of Statehood: Armenian Political Thinking since Independence
(Watertown, MA: Blue Crane, 1999), p. ix.
2.Armenian International Magazine (Jan. 1996): 14 (hereafter AIM); Tony Halpin, “Up the Down Escalator,” AIM (Oct. 1992): 14–15, 20; Astghik Mirzakhanyan, “Economic and Social Development,” in The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity, ed. Edmund Herzig and Marina Kurkchiyan (London: Routledge, 2005), pp. 201–3, 207.
3.AIM (Jan. 1996): 14; Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” pp. 201–3; Halpin, “Up the Down Escalator,” p. 20; Nancy L. Najarian, “A Fair Shake,” interview with Pavel Khaltakchian, AIM (Oct. 1992): 20–21.
4.Hakob Asatrian, “The Other Jolt,” AIM (Dec. 1993): 30–31.
5.Ken Curtin, “Vanishing Points,” AIM (Oct. 1993): 22.
6.Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” p. 208.
7.AIM (Dec. 1993): 20–21.
8.Interview by Salpi Haroutinian Ghazarian, AIM (Mar. 1994): 32–35.
9.AIM (Nov.–Dec. 1996): 17; Republic of Armenia, National Statistical Services, Economic and Financial Data, Statistical Yearbook 2001 (Erevan: National Statistical Services, 2001); Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” p. 204.
10.Rachel Denber and Robert Goldman, Bloodshed in the Caucasus (New York: Helsinki Watch, 1992), p. 12; Halpin, “Up the Down Escalator,” p. 19.
11.See, for example, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Military Expenditure Database, 1988–2006, SIPRI online, at sipri.org.
12.United Nations, Security Council, S/RES/822, 3205th meeting, Apr. 30, 1993; S/RES/853, 3259th meeting, July 29, 1993; S/RES/874, 3292nd meeting, Oct. 14, 1993; S/RES/884, 3313th meeting, Nov. 12, 1993.
13.Marina Kurkchiyan, “The Karabagh Conflict: From Soviet Past to post-Soviet Uncertainty,” in Herzig and Kurkchiyan, Armenians, p. 158.
14.The Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) was renamed as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) in December 1994. The Minsk Group is comprised of nine countries in addition to Armenia and Azerbaijan.
15.Kurkchiyan, “Karabagh,” pp. 158–59.
16.Graine Zeitlian, “The Shifting Ensemble,” AIM (Mar. 1994): 28–29.
17.OMRI Daily Digest, no. 55, Mar. 18, 1996; AIM (Mar. 1996): 14–15.
18.For the politics of MGM’s refusal to produce the film, see Vahram Leon Shemmassian, “The Armenian Villagers of Musa Dagh: A HistoricalEthnographic Study, 1840–1915,” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1996, pp. 249–61.
19.Graham E. Fuller, “Turkey’s New Eastern Orientation,” in Turkey’s New Geopolitics: From the Balkans to Western China, ed. Graham E. Fuller and Ian O. Lesser (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 76–80; Libaridian, Challenge, pp. 81–84, 87–90.
20.The BSEC founding members are Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine.
21.Simon Payaslian, “Ozal’s Last Stand,” AIM (April/May 1993); Azg (Sept. 14, 1993).
22.Fuller, “Turkey’s New Eastern Orientation,” p. 78.
23.Kurkchiyan, “Karabagh,” p. 159.
24.International Monetary Fund, Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook
(Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 1997).
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25.See Noyan Tapan, 1994–96, various issues. See also Jalil Rawshandil and Rafik Qulipur, Siasat va Hokumat dar Armenistan [Politics and Government in Armenia] (Tehran: Muassasah-i Chap va Intisharat-i Vizarat-i Umur-i Khariji, 1373 [1994/5]).
26.Quoted in Salpi Haroutinian Ghazarian, “He Came, He Saw, He Conquered,” AIM (Feb. 1996): 23.
27.AIM (Apr. 1999): 45.
28.David D. Laitin and Ronald Grigor Suny, “Armenia and Azerbaijan: Thinking a Way Out of Karabakh,” Middle East Policy 7:1 (Oct. 1999): 165–66; Ronald Grigor Suny, “The Fall of a President,” AIM (Feb. 1998): 13–14.
29.Tony Halpin, “The End of an Era,” AIM (Feb. 1998): 15–18.
30.Razmik Panossian, “Homeland-Diaspora Relations and Identity Differences,” in Herzig and Kurkchiyan, Armenians, p. 238; Gerard Libaridian, interview, AIM (Apr. 1999): 46; Halpin, “End of an Era.”
31.Carl J. Friedrich, “Political Leadership and the Problem of Charismatic Power,” Journal of Politics 23 (1961): 14.
32.Max Weber, “The Sociology of Charismatic Leadership,” in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, trans. and ed. H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), pp. 246–47; Max Weber, On Charisma and Institution Building (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968).
33.Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968); R.H. Jackson and C.E. Rosberg, “Personal Rule: Theory and Practice in Africa,” Comparative Politics 16:4 (July 1984): 421–42; Taketsugu Tsurutani, The Politics of National Development (New York: AbelandSchuman, 1973).
34.Gerard Libaridian, interview, AIM (Apr. 1999): 46.
35.Huntington, Political Order, p. 410.
36.A.H. Alexandrian, “Armenia’s New Parliament,” AIM (June 1999): 24–25.
37.Jivan Tabibian, “Building Institutions,” AIM (June 1999): 29.
38.Alexandrian, “Armenia’s New Parliament,” pp. 24–25.
39.Mary K. Matossian, The Impact of Soviet Policies in Armenia (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1962), pp. 3, 11; Nora Dudwick, “Out of the Kitchen into the Crossfire: Women in Independent Armenia,” in Post-Soviet Women: From the Baltic to Central Asia, ed. Mary Buckley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 235–48; Larissa Lissyutkina, “Soviet Women at the Crossroads of Perestroika,” in
Gender Politics and Post-Communism, ed. Nanette Funk and Magda Mueller (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 274–86.
40.Valentine Moghadam, “Gender Dynamics of Economics and Political Change: Efficiency, Equality, and Women,” in Democratic Reform and the Position of Women in Transitional Economies, ed. Valentine M. Moghadam (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993).
41.International Women’s Rights Action Watch (IWRAW), Country Report: Armenia, submitted to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), (Minneapolis, MN: International Women’s Rights Action Watch, 1997), p. 3.
42.Republic of Armenia, Ministry of Statistics, Women and Men in Armenia (Erevan: Ministry of Statistics, 1999), pp. 48–49.
43.Dudwick, “Out of the Kitchen,” p. 245.
44.Sergey Vaganovich Arakelyan, “Ubistva v sfere semeino-bitovikh otnoshenii i ikh preduprezhdeniye” [Murder in the Sphere of Domestic Relations and Its Prevention], Ph.D. diss. (Erevan: Erevan State University, 1999), sections 1.1., 1.2,
Notes |
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as cited in Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights, Domestic Violence in Armenia (Minneapolis, MN: Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights, Dec. 2000), at www.mnadvocates.org.
45.Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights, Domestic Violence in Armenia, p. 3.
46.Laurence Ritter, “Under Pressure,” AIM (Mar. 2002): 29–35.
47.Marina Kurkchiyan, “Society in Transition,” in Herzig and Kurkchiyan,
Armenians, p. 227.
48.Republic of Armenia, National Statistical Services, Economic and Financial Data, Statistical Yearbook 2005 (Erevan: National Statistical Services, 2006); Freedom House, Nations in Transition 2005 (New York: Freedom House, 2006); Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” pp. 204–5, 208–9; Kurkchiyan, “Society in Transition,” p. 211.
49.AIM (July 1999): 24.
50.Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) (Berlin: Transparency International, 1999, 2005); www.transparency.org.
51.Council of Europe, Groupe d’etats contre la corruption (GRECO), Evaluation Report on Armenia, 27th Plenary Meeting, Strasbourg, Mar. 6–10, 2006.
52.Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook (2007), www.cia.gov/library/ publications.
53.Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” p. 210.
54.World Bank, World Development Indicators (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2007); United Nations, Human Development Program, Human Development Report, 2006 (New York: United Nations, 2007).
55.Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” pp. 204–5.
56.Ibid., p. 208; Kurkchiyan, “Society in Transition,” pp. 217–19, 220–21; SIPRI, Military Expenditures Database, 1988–2006.
57.Matthew Karanian, “Epicenter Spitak,” AIM (Jan. 1999): 22.
58.Mirzakhanyan, “Economic,” p. 209.
59.AIM (Jan.–Feb. 2002): 12.
60.Suren Deherian, “Unlucky Anniversary: Gumri Marks 13 Years as a Disaster Zone,” AIM (Jan.–Feb. 2002): 43–47.
61.Marianna Grigorian, “Homes Too Long: 13 Years of Temporary Living,” and Nara Markossian, “A Stressful Inheritance,” AIM (Jan.–Feb. 2002): 48, 51.
62.Kurkchiyan, “Society in Transition,” p. 211.
63.“Armenia Supplying Prostitutes to International Markets,” Arminfo, Dec. 1, 2004. Hedq (online).
64.AIM (Feb. 1996): 14. See also Noyan Tapan, Feb. 18, 2000, where it is estimated that about 600,000 people emigrated from Armenia during the decade. ANN/Groong (online).
65.Quoted in Tony Halpin, “What Now?” AIM (Nov. 1999): 26–31.
66.Ibid.
67.Ibid.
68.Republic of Armenia, Central Electoral Commission, Parliamentary Elections, May 25, June 14, 15, 29, July 30, 2003, and Presidential Elections, Feb. 19, Mar. 5, 2003 (www.elections.am).
69.AIM (May 1999): 24–26; Badalyan died of a heart attack in November 1999 during his visit in Moscow. AIM (Dec. 1999): 19.
70.Hratch Tchilingirian, “The Istanbul Summit,” AIM (Dec. 1999): 24–25.
71.Tony Halpin, “Geography of Friendship,” AIM (Mar. 1999): 40–41.
72.Hooman Peimani, “Iran Fights to Loosen America’s Noose,” Asia Times, May 1, 2003, online, www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East.
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73.Hayastan All-Armenian Fund, www.himnadram.org, accessed Oct. 22, 2006.
74.See, for example, Armenian National Institute, www.armenian-genocide.org.
75.Tony Halpin, “History’s Reckoning,” AIM (Apr. 2002): 28.
76.David L. Phillips, Unsilencing the Past: Track Two Diplomacy and TurkishArmenian Reconciliation (New York: Berghahn Books, 2005); Simon Payaslian, “Anatomy of Post-Genocide Reconciliation,” in The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, forthcoming).