Материал: Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Diagnosis, Management, and Control

Nomenclature for proteins

The names of the viral proteins have changed over time and these variations in terminology can be confusing as one reads past literature. The names used above and in Table 3.1 are those designated in the Seventh Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (van Regenmortel et al., 2000). The first studies of BVDV reported two glycosylated structural polypeptides, with molecular weights of 55K and 45K, which were termed VP1 and VP2, respectively (Matthaeus, 1979). Later reviews referred to these proteins as E1 and E2 (Westaway et al., 1985). When Collett et al. first derived the genomic map for BVDV, gene products were designated by their molecular weights and glycosylation status (Collett et al., 1988b). Thus, the viral protein now known as E2, may be referred to as VP1, E1, or gp53 in the literature. Similarly, Erns may be reported as VP2, E0, E2, or gp48.

TRANSLATION AND PROCESSING OF THE

POLYPROTEIN

As stated above, the first viral protein in the ORF is a nonstructural protein unique to the pestivirus genus, Npro. The Npro is an autoprotease whose only known function is to cleave itself from the polyprotein. Cellular signal peptidases are responsible for the cleavages between C and Erns, E1, and E2, and E2 and p7 (Rumenapf et al., 1993; Stark et al., 1993; Elbers et al., 1996). The mechanism that produces the cleavage between Erns and E2 is unknown. As stated above, the cleavage between E2 and p7 may not be complete. Depending on the biotype of the virus (see section on biotypes below), the NS2/3 protein may be further processed to the NS2 and the NS3 proteins. Both NS2/3 and NS3 have serine protease activity that cleaves the remaining downstream proteins from the polyprotein. The NS4A viral protein facilitates the protease activity of the NS2/3 (and/or NS3) at the cleavage between NS4B and NS5A and between NS5A and NS5B.

VIRAL REPLICATION

Viral proteins, generated by processing the translated polyprotein, participate in viral replication. It has been proposed that a secondary structure motif in the 5’ UTR enables the switch of viral RNA from a template for translation to a template for replication (Yu et al., 2000). RNA replication occurs via a replication complex, composed of viral RNA and viral nonstructural proteins, in association with intracytoplasmic membranes. The replication of BVDV RNA is similar to that of other flaviviruses.

After translation, RNA replication begins with the synthesis of complementary negative strands. Using these negative strands as templates, genome-length positive strands are synthesized by a semiconservative mechanism involving replicative intermediates and replicative forms (Gong et al., 1996; Gong et al., 1998). Because viral proteins are not detected on the surface of infected cells, it is thought that virions mature in intracellular vesicles and are released by exocytosis (Heinz et al., 2000). A substantial fraction of the infectious virus remains cell associated (Lindenbach and Rice, 2001).

BVDV GENOTYPES AND PHENOTYPES

As stated above, BVDV strains may belong to one of two different genotypes, BVDV 1 and BVDV 2. Further, viruses from either genotype may exist as one of two biotypes, cytopathic and noncytopathic.

BVDV GENOTYPES

Genotyping is grouping based on comparison of genomic sequences. There are no hard and fast taxonomic rules governing how different two genomes have to be before they are designated different genotypes. However, for genotypic designations to be meaningful, some practical considerations should be taken into account. Genotypes should be distinct, discrete, and stable. That is, there should be a clear defined break between groups (discreet groups as opposed to a continuum), and isolates should not be able to easily switch back and forth between groups. Ideally genotypes would be associated with practical observations such as geographic distribution, antigenic variation, or variations in virulence. The differentiation between the BVDV 1 and the BVDV 2 genotypes meets these practical considerations.

The first reported division of BVDV strains into two different genotypes was based on comparison of the 5’ UTR (Pellerin et al., 1994; Ridpath et al., 1994a). Previous studies of vaccination cross protection and monoclonal antibody binding revealed that BVDV strains were quite variable (Moennig et al., 1987; Bolin et al., 1988; Corapi et al., 1990a; Bolin et al., 1991a; Donis et al., 1991; Edwards et al., 1991). Although these studies indicated that there was considerable variation among BVDV strains, no standard means of grouping viruses based on these variations was generated. Meanwhile, hybridization analysis and sequence comparison suggested that the 5’ UTR was highly conserved compared to other portions of the genome (Lewis et al., 1991; Ridpath and Bolin, 1991; Ridpath et al.,

1993). The highly conserved sequences in the 5’ UTR were evaluated by several groups as targets for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests designed to detect the wide range of BVDV strains or to differentiate BVDV from CSFV or BDV (Hofmann et al., 1994; Vilcek, 1994). Concurrent to this research a highly virulent form of BVD, termed hemorrhagic syndrome, was reported in Canada and the United States (Corapi et al., 1989; Corapi et al., 1990b; Carman, 1995; Carman et al., 1998). Phylogenetic analysis of the BVDV strains, isolated from animals suffering from hemorrhagic syndrome, grouped them separately from the BVDV strains commonly used, at that time, in vaccine production, diagnostic tests, and research (Pellerin et al., 1994; Ridpath et al., 1994a). The newly recognized group of BVDV was designated BVDV genotype II, and the group containing the strains used in vaccines, detection, and research was termed BVDV genotype I. The names of these two genotypes were later modified to BVDV 1 and BVDV 2 in keeping with taxonomic conventions in use with other viruses (Heinz et al., 2000). It was further noted that viruses from the BVDV 2 genotype were also isolated from persistently infected calves born to dams that had been vaccinated with vaccines based on BVDV 1 isolates (Ridpath et al., 1994a). Comparison of monoclonal antibody binding profiles revealed clear differences between BVDV 1 and BVDV 2 strains (Ridpath et al., 1994a). Although initial phylogenetic differentiation was based on comparison of 5’ UTR sequences, comparison of complete genomic sequences showed that differences between BVDV 1 and BVDV 2 strains were found throughout the genome (Ridpath and Bolin, 1995b).

There are two common misconceptions relating to the BVDV 2 genotype. One relates to origin of the BVDV 2 genotype and the other relates to the virulence of BVDV 2 strains. In the late 1990s there was some speculation that BVDV 2 strains represented newly emerging viruses that originated in the United States as a result of use of vaccines by U.S. producers and were then transferred to Europe. Although BVDV 2 strains were first recognized in 1994, retrospective characterization of strains collected from BVDV outbreaks in Ontario that occurred between 1981 and 1994 demonstrated that BVDV 2 were present in North America at least since the the early 1980s. However, the first BVDV 2 strain described in the literature was isolated in Europe prior to 1979 (Wensvoort et al., 1989b). Interestingly, this strain was isolated from a pig and was referred to as an atypical CSFV. Subsequent comparison of this iso-

late to BVDV 2 strains isolated from North America led to the segregation of this virus to the BVDV 2 genotype (Paton et al., 1995b). Further, a phylogenetic survey of BVDV 1 and BVDV 2 strains showed similar levels of sequence variation in the 5’ UTR (Ridpath et al., 2000). If one assumes that the evolutionary clock ticks at the same rate for both genotypes, similar rates of variation in the 5’ UTR suggests that the two genotypes have been evolving for approximately the same time span. This suggests that viruses from the BVDV 2 genotype are not newly emerging viruses, but newly recognized ones.

Initially the BVDV 2 genotype was associated with outbreaks of hemorrhagic syndrome (Corapi et al., 1989; Corapi et al., 1990b; Pellerin et al., 1994; Carman et al., 1998), a clinically severe form of acute BVDV infection. This led to the misconception that all BVDV 2 strains cause severe acute disease. In an initial survey of BVDV 2 strains, only 32 out of 76 strains were associated with clinically severe disease (Ridpath et al., 1994a). Since then, animal studies have shown that there is a continuum of virulence seen in acute infections with type 2 BVDV (Flores et al., 2000; Fulton et al., 2000a; Hamers et al., 2000; Ridpath et al., 2000; Tajima et al., 2001; Evermann and Ridpath, 2002; Kelling et al., 2002; LieblerTenorio et al., 2002; Liebler-Tenorio et al., 2003). Thus, it appears that only a minority of BVDV 2 strains cause severe acute clinical disease. The majority of BVDV 2 strains present in North America appear to be no more virulent than BVDV 1 strains.

Prevalence of BVDV genotypes

Both BVDV genotypes have been reported in North America (Pellerin et al., 1994; Ridpath and Neill, 1998), Europe (Becher et al., 1995; Edwards and Paton, 1995; Paton, 1995a, b; Sandvik et al., 1997; van Rijn et al., 1997; Giangaspero et al., 2001; Luzzago et al., 2001; Pratelli et al., 2001; Couvreur et al., 2002; Vilcek et al., 2002), and South America (Canal et al., 1998; Jones et al., 2001), although the reported prevalence of BVDV 2 is higher in North America than in Europe or South America. Reports of the prevalence of the BVDV 2 genotype in commercial cattle herds in North America range from 24–47% (Carman, 1995; Bolin and Ridpath, 1998; Carman et al., 1998; Fulton et al., 1998; Fulton et al., 2000b; Evermann and Ridpath, 2002).

Similarities between viruses from the BVDV 1 and the BVDV 2 genotype

Viruses from both genotypes may exist as one of two biotypes, cytopathic and noncytopathic (see

below). Noncytopathic viruses from either genotype can cross the placenta and establish persistent infections in the fetus.

Aside from severe acute BVDV, it is difficult to distinguish BVDV 1 infections from BVDV 2 infections based on clinical signs. There is considerable heterogeneity among strains from both genotypes. Although virulence is strain-dependent, clinical presentation may also be effected by immune status, reproductive status, stress, and the presence of secondary pathogens.

Heterogeneity, among strains within each genotype, also affects antigenicity. Although strains from the BVDV 1 and BVDV 2 genotypes may be distinguished by monoclonal antibody binding, there are smaller, but still significant, differences among strains from the same genotype (Ridpath et al., 1994a; Ridpath et al., 2000).

Differences between viruses from the BVDV 1 and the BVDV 2 genotype

To date only viruses from the BVDV 2 genotype are associated with severe acute BVDV (Corapi et al., 1989; Corapi et al., 1990b; Bolin and Ridpath, 1992; Pellerin et al., 1994; Ridpath et al., 1994a; Carman et al., 1998; Liebler-Tenorio et al., 2002). BVDV 1 and BVDV 2 strains are antigenically distinct, as demonstrated by serum neutralization using polyclonal sera and monoclonal antibody binding (Ridpath et al., 2000). The practical significance of antigenic differences is indicated by the birth of BVDV 2 persistently infected animals to dams that had been vaccinated against BVDV 1 strains (Bolin et al., 1991a; Ridpath et al., 1994a). Although modified live BVDV 1 vaccines may induce antibodies against BVDV 2 strains, the titers average one log less than titers against heterologous BVDV 1 strains (Cortese et al., 1998).

Subgenotypes of BVDV 1 and BVDV 2

Subgenotypes of both BVDV 1 and BVDV 2 have been described, although the biological significance of these subgroupings is a matter of debate. BVDV 1 strains from North America can be segregated to two subgenotypes, BVDV 1a and BVDV 1b (Pellerin et al., 1994). These two subgenotypes can be distinguished by monoclonal antibody binding (Bolin and Ridpath, 1998) and RT-PCR (Ridpath and Bolin, 1998). Epidemiological surveys suggest that BVDV 1b strains may predominate in respiratory cases (Fulton et al., 2002), and BVDV 1a strains may predominate in fetal infections occurring late in gestation (>100 days gestation) (Evermann and Rid-

path, 2002). While the reported incidence of BVDV 2 strains is lower, European BVDV 1 strains appear to be more variable than North American BVDV 1 strains. The European BVDV 1 strains have been separated into at least 11 subgroups (Vilcek et al., 2001a). The biological significance of these 11 groups has yet to be examined.

Similarly, BVDV 2 strains from North and South American have been segregated into two subgroups, BVDV 2a and BVDV 2b (Flores et al., 2002). In North America BVDV 2b strains are relatively rare; in South America the prevalence of BVDV 2a strains and BVDV 2b strains are similar.

BVDV BIOTYPES

As stated above, both BVDV 1 strains and BVDV 2 strains may exist as one of two biotypes, cytopathic and noncytopathic. The division into biotypes is based on the activity of the strain when propagated in cultured epithelial cells (Lee and Gillespie, 1957; Gillespie et al., 1960). Recall that both noncytopathic and cytopathic strains code for the nonstructural protein NS2-3. Among cytopathic strains the NS2-3 is processed to an NS2 and an NS3 protein. Processing of the NS2-3 protein in cytopathic strains may occur by several different strategies depending on the viral strain (Meyers et al., 1991a, b; Meyers et al., 1992; Qi et al., 1992; Ridpath et al., 1994b; Kupfermann et al., 1996; Tautz et al., 1996; Becher et al., 1998; Mendez et al., 1998; Meyers et al., 1998; Qi et al., 1998; Becher et al., 1999; Baroth et al., 2000; Kummerer and Meyers, 2000; Ridpath and Neill, 2000; Vilcek et al., 2000; Neill and Ridpath, 2001; Becher et al., 2002; Ridpath and Bolin, 1995a). Most commonly, the generation of the NS3 is associated with insertion of sequences into the viral genome. Generally the amino acid sequence flanking the carboxy-terminus of the insertion corresponds to either amino acid position 1535 or position 1589 (numbering based on the noncytopathic BVDV 1a strain SD-1, acc. # M96751, see footnote a). These two positions are referred to as positions A and B, respectively (Meyers et al., 1998). Position B corresponds to the cleavage site that frees the N-terminus of the NS3 from the NS2- 3 precursor. It is thought that insertions at the B position result in the processing of the NS2-3, either by introducing a new cleavage site at carboxy terminus of the insertion or by introducing sequences with autocatalytic activity that act at the carboxy terminus of the insertion. The end result is that cleavage occurs at position 1589, making Gly1589 the first amino acid of NS3. Insertions at position A, al-

though upstream of the cleavage site, also produce cleavage at amino acid position 1589. It has been proposed that insertions upstream of the cleavage site induce conformational changes that allow cleav-

age via a cryptic mechanism at Gly1589 (Meyers and Thiel, 1996). The most frequently described inser-

tions into cytopathic BVDV 1 strains have been at position B and consist of duplicated viral genomic sequence and/or ubiquitin coding sequences. Insertions in cytopathic BVDV 2 strains are more frequently reported in the vicinity of position A and consist of portions of a gene coding for a DnaJ-like protein (Ridpath and Neill, 2000; Neill and Ridpath, 2001). Included among the possible explanations for these differences in relative frequency of position and source of inserted sequences are (i) differences in recombination frequencies due to sequence variation; (ii) differences in the stability of recombinations; and (iii) differences in the relative amounts of mRNA coding for ubiquitin and DnaJ-like proteins in BVDV 1 and BVDV 2 infected cells.

Practical significance of biotypes

Only noncytopathic BVDV have been reported to establish persistent infections. This has led to some speculation that cytopathic BVDV are not able to cross the placenta and thus do not infect the fetus. However, the detection of cytopathic BVDV strains in fetal calf serum and fetal sero conversion in utero after exposure to cytopathic BVDV call into question this assumption (Brownlie et al., 1989; Bolin et al., 1991b; Bolin and Ridpath, 1998). Because cytopathic BVDV do not establish persistent infections in vivo, they are frequently the biotype of choice for modified live vaccines. Superinfection of an animal, persistently infected with a noncytopathic BVDV, with a cytopathic BVDV can lead to the development of a highly fatal form of BVDV called mucosal disease (Brownlie et al., 1984; Bolin et al., 1985). Mucosal disease is a comparatively rare form of BVDV and does not represent a major source of loss for producers (Houe, 1995, 1999). The majority of losses incurred by producers due to BVDV infections are associated with acute infections with noncytopathic BVDV (Houe, 1995; Fulton et al., 1998; Houe, 1999; Fulton et al., 2000a, b; Evermann and Ridpath, 2002; Fulton et al., 2002).

Noncytopathic BVDV strains predominate over cytopathic BVDV in nature. In the field, cytopathic BVDV strains are typically isolated from mucosal disease outbreaks or post-vaccinal disease outbreaks. Cytopathology in cultured epithelial cells does not correlate with virulence in acute infections

in vivo. All highly virulent viruses studied to date have been noncytopathic (Corapi et al., 1990b; Bolin and Ridpath, 1992; Carman et al., 1998; Ellis et al., 1998; Ridpath et al., 2000; Liebler-Tenorio et al., 2002). In short, from a management standpoint, determining the genotype of a strain is generally more important than determining the biotype.

Importance of variation among BVDV

Heterogeneity is the defining characteristic of BVDV viruses. Variation between BVDV genotype 1 and BVDV genotype 2 has practical significance. In particular, variation in antigenicity impacts on detection and management programs. The impact of variation within each genotype is less well defined. Understanding and compensating for variation among BVDV is essential to developing a successful control program.

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