Материал: Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Diagnosis, Management, and Control
Pooled blood samples, 37
Pooled monoclonal antibodies, 19 Pooled samples, for diagnostic testing, 24
Pooling strategies, herd immunity and, 160 “Poor-doers,” 129
Population genetics, quasispecies and, 85 Porcine kidney cell system, 199 Porencephaly, 150
Postnatal horizontal transmission, management and control of BVDV and, 223
Postnatal infection/disease, vaccines and protection against, 214–217
Postnatal transmission, 93
Postvaccinal mucosal disease, 6, 8, 9, 13, 15 Potgieter, L.N.D., 10, 11
Prebreeding vaccination, 99
Precolostral BVDV-neutralizing antibodies, 94 Preconditioning programs, 13
Pregnancy status, 105
Pregnant cattle, BVDV in, 107, 109
Pregnant PI cows, and transmission to fetus, 96 Prenatal testing, 204, 242
Preovulatory period, infection during, 127 Present values, 56
Prevalence, 35, 58, 59
of BVDV genotypes, 72
of BVDV infections, 36–38, 46 definition of, 36
epidemiological studies for estimation of, 38 epidemiological studies for estimation of, in animals
with antibodies against BVDV, 39–42 incidence and, 49
intra-herd transmission and, 100 reducing, 101
Primary bovine embryo kidney (pBEK) cells, 199 Prins, S., 18
Pritchard, W.R., 4, 5 Probability of infection, 91, 92
Production records, use of, in evaluating moribund and dead calves, 228–229
Prolonged infections, acute, 240–241 Pronghorn antelope, 66, 173 Protective immunity, 160
Protein kinase, 186
Protein translation, virus replication and, 188 Proteolytic processing, 84
Pseudoknot structures, 82 Pulmonary hypoplasia, 107, 224 Pulmonary lesions, in lambs, 172 Putative species, pestiviruses and, 66 PV. See Present values
pvMD. See Postvaccinal mucosal disease Pyrexia, 162
Quantitative disorder, 162
Quasispecies, population genetics and, 85 Quebec
BVDV type 2 emergence in, 14
Index |
257 |
severe acute BVDV infection in cattle population in, 111
Qvist, P., 19
Rabbits, cell lines survey and, 173 Radostits, O.M., 13, 20
Radwan, G.S., 20 Rae, A.G., 18 Ramsey, F.K., 4, 131
Real rate of interest, 56 Rebhun, W.C., 11
Recovery, from acute BVDV infections, 115 Rectal transmission of BVDV, 95
Reduced milk yield, 53
Reindeer, viruses isolated from, 66 Relative risk, 50
Renshaw, R.W., 20 Repeat breeding, 53 Replication, 177
interactions with cellular factors during, 180–186 overall view of, 190
regulation of, 84–85 RNA, 184–186 viral, 71
Replicative form, of RNA, 83
Reproductive consequences, from BVDV, 113–114 Reproductive disease
impact of
gestation stage on outcome of, 147–150 host factors on outcome of, 151 vaccination on outcome of, 151–152 viral factors on outcome of, 151
ovarian infection, 147 overview of, 145
persistent infections and, 145–152 testicular infection, 145–146
Reproductive disorders, 55, 59 Reproductive effects, of BVDV, 223–224 Reproductive infections, 152
Reproductive losses, initial descriptions of, 145 Reproductive performance, impact of different BVDV
strains on, 107, 108–109 Research
BVDV, progress in, 239–240 refocusing of, 240–241
acute, prolonged infections, 240–241 low-virulence strains of BVDV, 241 noncytopathic BVDV, 240
T-cell responses, 240 Respiratory disease, 10–11, 53, 145
2000 to the present, 21–22
Respiratory tract, BVDV and damage to, 110 Retained placenta, 54
Retinal atrophy, 107, 164 Retinal degeneration, 150, 224 Revell, S.G., 10
Reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction, 113
258 |
Index |
Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, 19, 171, |
Ruggli, N., 188 |
178, 199, 205 |
Ruminants |
assays, 197, 201–202 |
infection of, with BVDV, 101 |
RF. See Replicative form |
occurrence of BVDV in, 115–116 |
Ridpath, J.F., 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 24, 203 |
spread of BVDV among, 105 |
Rinderpest, 4, 110 |
|
Risk assessment, 35–59 |
SAGE. See Serial analysis of gene expression |
economic impact of BVDV, 56–58 |
Saliki, J.T., 19, 200 |
economic evaluation of control strategies at herd |
Salmonella spp., 114, 126 |
level, 58 |
Salmonellosis, 110 |
economic losses at herd level, 57 |
Sampling, prevalence measures and, 38 |
economic losses in larger populations and at |
Savan, M., 5 |
national level, 57–58 |
Saxony-Anhalt (Germany), serum pools used in, 204 |
evaluation of eradication programs and, 58 |
Scandinavia |
optimizing decisions based on economic calcula- |
BVDV control programs in, 197 |
tions, 58 |
eradication programs in, 25, 46 |
incidence of BVDV infections, 47–49 |
Schelp, C., 178 |
epidemiological studies for estimating incidence, |
Scheme of Alenius, 203 |
47–49 |
Schweizer, M., 23, 186, 188 |
prevalence and incidence, 49 |
Screening samples, epidemiological studies for estima- |
measurable and quantifiable epidemiological variables, |
tion of herd level prevalence based on, 45 |
35 |
Se. See Sensitivity |
overview of, 35 |
Secondary infections, BVDV and, 161 |
prevalence of BVDV infections, 36–38, 46 |
Semen. See also Testicular infection |
epidemiological studies for estimation of preva- |
BVDV transmission via, 94–95, 230, 239 |
lence, 38, 46 |
inter-herd transmission and, 101 |
epidemiological studies on occurrence of different |
quality of, in persistently infected bulls, 10 |
genotypes and, 46 |
testing of, before bull’s entry into AI center, 17 |
quantification of effects/consequences of BVDV |
venereal infections and, 113 |
infections, 53–56 |
Semliki Forest virus, 188 |
losses among PI animals, 55–56 |
Sensitivity, prevalence and, 36, 37 |
occurrence of other diseases, 53–54 |
Sentinel animals |
reduced milk yield, 53 |
serologic evaluation of, 229–230 |
reproductive disorders, 55 |
use and testing of, 25 |
subclinical infections, 53 |
Septicemia, 111 |
virulent strains of BVDV with other pathogens, 54 |
Serial analysis of gene expression, 188 |
risk factors for occurrence of BVDV infections, 49–52 |
Serine protease, 70 |
Risk factors, 51 |
Seroconversion |
for BVDV infections, 59 |
incidence risk and, 48 |
defined, 49 |
in non-bovine hosts, 172–173 |
epidemiological framework for description of, 36 |
Serologic evaluation, of sentinel animals, 229–230 |
for occurrence of BVDV infections, 49–52 |
Serology, 227 |
RNA, 25 |
problems with, 160 |
virus-specific forms, 83 |
Seronegative animals, BVDV transmission to, 96 |
RNA helicase, 70, 82 |
Serum neutralization assays, 4, 8, 15 |
RNA replication, 183, 184–186 |
Serum neutralization test, 5, 160, 200 |
RNA replicative intermediate (RI), 184 |
Serum neutralizing (SN) antibodies, 91, 96, 97 |
RNases, immunomodulatory effects of, 186 |
Serum PCR-probe test, 24 |
RNA-stimulated NTPase, 70 |
Severe acute BVDV infection, 105, 110–111, 242 |
RNA viruses, 81 |
lesions in cattle suffering from, 112, 113 |
R-not (reproduction number), 91 |
thrombocytopenia and hemorrhages in, 126 |
Roe deer, 116 |
Severe acute disease, 157 |
Rotavirus, 114 |
SFV. See Semliki Forest virus |
RR. See Relative risk |
Shahriar, F.M., 22 |
RT-nPCR. See Reverse transcription-nested polymerase |
Shedding, 203, 223 |
chain reaction |
acute infection and, 94 |
RT-PCR. See Reverse transcription-polymerase chain |
clinical features of BVDV and, 105 |
reaction |
herd immunity and, 93 |
Index |
259 |
intra-herd transmission and, 100
prolonged, following acute infection, 130–131 in semen, 146
transmission
from acutely infected animals and, 97–98 from persistently infected animals and, 96–97 via modified live virus vaccine, 96
Sheep, 116, 151
border disease virus of, 171, 198
BVDV transmission between cattle and, 231 cell lines survey and, 173
congenital infection in, 174
studies of transplacental infection of ovine fetuses with BVDV in, 172
in vaccine studies, 209 Shimizu, M., 9
“Shipping fever” pneumonia, 10 Signaling inhibition, 187–188
cytokines, 187 intracellular, 187–188
Singer strain, 8, 11, 14, 17, 242 vaccine, 13
Single-strand conformation polymorphism, 203 Single-stranded viral RNA, 83
SIR (susceptible/infectious/removed) model, 47 Skin biopsies, 24, 205
immunohistochemistry of, 198–199 staining of viral antigen in, 226
Slaughterhouse fetuses, BVDV found in, 95 Slovakia, BVDV genotypes identified in, 46
SN antibodies. See Serum neutralizing (SN) antibodies SN test. See Serum neutralization test
South America
BVDV genotypes identified in, 46 subgroups of BVDV 2 in, 73
Southern Africa, subtypes of BVDV 1 in, 22 Sp. See Specificity
Spahn, C.M.T., 182 Specific immunity, 157
Specificity, prevalence and, 36, 37 Sperm heads, in infected bulls, 10 Spinal cord, hypomyelination of, 224 Spleen, BVDV and damage to, 110, 163 Spontaneous mucosal disease, 3, 15
SSCP. See Single-strand conformation polymorphism Stable flies, BVDV transmission and, 96
ST cell system. See Swine testicle cell system Stillbirths, 8, 55, 129
Stocker operations, control programs and management of, 234–235
Stocking density, intra-herd transmission and, 100 Stocking rate, minimizing BVDV transmission and, 101
Stomoxys calcitrans, 96 Strain differentiation, 202–203
Strategic vaccination, examples of, 99 Stress, vaccine efficacy and, 242 Subcellular fractionation techniques, 189 Subclinical acute infections, 197
Subclinical infections, 53, 59, 109 Subgenotypes, 239
of BVDV 1 and BVDV 2, 73 Suckling calves, testing of, 230 Sullivan, D.G., 20, 203 Superinfections, 9
Superovulatory response, in persistently infected cows, 16
Surveillance programs, 59, 241–242 Susceptible animals
decline in, 92
reducing proportion of, 101–102 Sweden
antibody levels from bulk tank milk in, 48 bulk milk screening for BVDV in, 205
bulk tank milk samples from dairy herds in, 53 BVDV control program in, 197
eradication programs in, 21, 25, 239 self-clearance in, 46
Sweet clover poisoning, 111 Swine testicle cell system, 199 Switzerland, incidence risk in, 48
Synergism, between BVDV and enteric pathogens, 161
Tamoglia, T.W., 7
TaqMan, 20, 202
T-cell immune responses development of, 213, 214 research on, 240
T-cells, 164
Temperature monitoring, 123 Temperature-sensitive mutant virus vaccine, 13 Teratogenic effects, of BVDV, 129 Teratogenic lesions, fetal infections and, 224
Testes, as immunologically privileged site, 163, 164 Testicular infection, bull fertility and, 145–146 TGAC virus, 16
Thomson, R.G., 5
3 UTR (3 untranslated region), 81, 82 Thrombocytopenia, 11, 14, 111, 124, 126, 162, 197 Thrombocytopenic calf
excessive hemorrhage in, 111
petechiation of ocular mucous membranes in, 111 Thür, B., 24
Thymic aplasia, 224 Thymic hypoplasia, 150
Thymus, effect of BVDV on, 163 TI. See Transient infection TIA-1, 185
TIAR, 185
Tissue lesions, correlation between viral antigen and, 133
T-lymphocytes, decrease of, in acute BVDV infection, 125
Tonsils, BVDV and damage to, 110 Torticollis, 129
TP. See True prevalence TRAM, 189
260 |
Index |
Transient infection, 93, 106, 223 |
impact of, on outcome of reproductive disease, |
acute, 121 |
151–152 |
BVDV spread in secretions/excretions during, 107 |
measuring effect of, on transmission, 92 |
in calves, 59 |
prevention of transmission by, 98–100 |
in calves, occurrence of other diseases and, 54 |
in vitro evidence of efficacy of, 231 |
in cows, 48, 53–54 |
of young calves, colostral immunity and, 231–232 |
in other ruminants, 115 |
Vaccination programs, control programs and, 209 |
by virulent strains or BVDV in combination with other |
“Vaccine Claims for Protection of the Fetus Against |
pathogens, 54–55 |
Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus,” 210 |
Translation |
Vaccine-induced mucosal disease, in persistently infected |
of polyprotein, 71 |
cattle, 3 |
regulation of, 84–85 |
Vaccines, 3, 209–219 |
replication and, 82–83 |
appropriate use of, 210 |
Transmission. See Virus transmission |
design of, 242 |
Transplacental infection, 114 |
efficacy studies, 214 |
Transplacental infections/intrauterine infections, 121, |
protection against fetal infection/disease, 217–219 |
126–130 |
protection against postnatal infection/disease, |
fetal infection, 128–130 |
214–217 |
abortions, 128–129 |
fetal protection and, 232–233 |
persistent infections, 129 |
goals for development of, 219 |
teratogenic effects, 129–130 |
killed, 212–213 |
infection during preovulatory period, 127 |
mechanism of protection for BVDV, 213–214 |
role of viral and host factors in, 126–127 |
modified live virus, 114, 211–212 |
uterine exposure to BVDV at insemination, 127–128 |
overview of, 209–210 |
Transrectal transmission of BVDV, 95 |
protection based on disease form and, 213 |
Tremors, 164 |
recent research on BVDV strains in, 239 |
Triton-X-100 treatment, 201 |
serological results and different uses of, 38 |
Trizol (Gibco) reagent, 202 |
strains, 211 |
tRNA syntheses, 188 |
stress and efficacy of, 242 |
True prevalence, 36 |
Van Oirschot, J.T., 21, 209, 214 |
Trypsin treatment, pestivirus virion and, 66 |
Vassilev, V.B., 22, 25 |
Tuberculosis, 159 |
Veal calves, BVDV-related hemorrhages in, 11 |
Tumor necrosis factor, 157 |
Venereal infections, 113, 130 |
Type 1c virus, 22 |
Vertical transmission, 93–94 |
Type 1d virus, 22 |
embryo transfer and, 231 |
|
management and control of BVDV and, 223 |
Udder health, 53 |
VI. See Virus isolation |
Ungulate species, BVDV transmission and, 231 |
Vilcek, S., 201 |
United Kingdom, BVDV genotypes identified in, 46 |
Viral factors |
United States |
impact of, on outcome of reproductive disease, 151 |
BVDV genotypes identified in, 46 |
role of, in transplacental/intrauterine infection, |
BVDV type 2 emergence in, 14 |
126–128 |
severe acute BVDV infection in cattle population in, |
Viral genome, genome organization and, 81–82 |
110 |
Viral nonstructural proteins, 69–70 |
Untranslated regions, 65. See also 3’ UTR; 5’ UTR |
Viral proteins, 68 |
USDA, BVDV guidelines, 152 |
nomenclature for, 71 |
Uterus, exposure of, to BVDV at insemination, |
nonstructural, 69–70 |
127–128 |
RNA replication and, 184–185 |
UTR. See Untranslated regions |
structural, 68–69 |
|
Viral replication, 71 |
Vaccination, 102, 197, 205 |
Viral shedding. See also Shedding |
biosecurity and, 233–234 |
in persistently infected bulls, 10 |
to control BVDV-induced disease and production |
prolonged, following acute infection, 130–131 |
losses, 231–233 |
Viral structural proteins, 68–69 |
control by, 20–21, 25 |
Viremia, 5, 17 |
control without, 21 |
detection of, 106 |
eradication without, 3 |
testing for, 17 |
in Germany, 25 |
Virion assembly, exocytosis and, 85 |
Index |
261 |
Virions, pestivirus, 66
Virulence factors, role of, in acute infection, 121, 123 Virulent strains, transient infection by, in combination
with other pathogens, 54–55 Virus and host interactions, 177–190
BVDV replication cycle overview, 189–190 cell death, 186–187
with cellular factors during replication, 180–186 polyprotein translation, 181–183
processing of envelope glycoproteins and, 183–184 RNA replication, 184–186
cellular remodeling, 188–189 inhibition of signaling, 187–188
cytokines, 187
intracellular signaling inhibition, 187–188 receptor and virus attachment, 177–180
cellular factors, 177–179 viral factors, 179–180
virus release, 189
Virus isolation, 199–200, 226 diagnosis by, 17, 18
in non-bovine hosts, 172–173 in semen, 113
Virus-neutralization test, 200 Virus pair, 9
Virus release, 189 Virus replication, 81–86
cytopathology, 83–84
defective interfering particles and cytopathology, 84 5 UTR, 82
genetic recombination, 83 overview of, 81 proteolytic processing, 84
quasispecies and population genetics, 85 regulation of translation and replication, 84–85 sites, 85
3 UTR, 82 translation and, 82–83 viral genome, 81–82
genome organization, 81–82 virion assembly and exocytosis, 85 virus binding and reentry, 82
Virus shedding
in persistently infected bulls, 10 Virus transmission, 91–102
of BVDV from infected animals, 96–98 from acutely infected animals, 97–98 from persistently infected animals, 96–97
horizontal and vertical, 93–94
infectious disease epidemiology, 91–93 BVDV transmission factors, 91–92 effect of vaccination on transmission, 92
transmission under influence of herd immunity, 92–93
inter-herd, 101 intra-herd, 100–101
minimizing BVDV transmission, 101–102 reducing coefficient of infectiousness, 101 reducing duration of prevalence of infectious
animals, 101
reducing likelihood of adequate contact, 101 reducing proportion of susceptible animals,
101–102 overview of, 91 prevention of
by colostral antibodies, 98 by vaccination, 98–100
routes and means of BVDV transmission, 94–96 via embryo transfer, 95
iatrogenic, fomite, environmental, and insect, 95–96 via milk and colostrum, 96
via modified live virus vaccine, 96 via semen, 94–95
transrectal transmission, 95 VN. See Virus-neutralization test Voges, H., 16, 17
VP1, 71
VP2, 71
Washing procedures, embryo transfer and, 231 Wasting disease, 157
Weak-born calves, 55, 59
Weaning, mortality of PI calves prior to, 224 Weinstock, D., 24, 201, 202
Wentink, G.H., 16 Westenbrink, F., 9, 15 West Nile virus, 189
White blood cell disorders, 162 Whitmore, H.L., 10 Whole-herd testing, 227
annual, 230 Wildlife
BVDV transmission and, 231 pestiviruses and, 14
Winter dysentery, 110
World Organization for Animal Health, 17
Zona pellucida, BVDV infection and, 149