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farm from the other. A great advantage that rubble walls offered is that when heavy rain fall their structure would allow excessive water to pass through and therefore, excess water will not ruin the products. Soil erosion is minimised as the wall structure allows the water to pass through but it traps the soil and prevents it from being carried away from the field. One can see many rubble walls on the side of the hills and in valleys where the land slopes down and consequently the soil is in greater danger of being carried away.

Задание 3. Дайте перевод толкования понятия.

Задание 4. Прочитайте текст. Организуйте полученную вами информацию в опорную схему.

Cobblestones

Cobblestones are stones that were frequently used in the pavement of early streets. "Cobblestone" is derived from the very old English word "cob", which had a wide range of meanings, one of which was "rounded lump" with overtones of large size. "Cobble", which appeared in the 15th century, simply added the diminutive suffix "le" to "cob", and meant a small stone rounded by the flow of water; essentially, a large pebble. It was these smooth "cobbles", gathered from stream beds, that paved the first "cobblestone" streets.

Note that cobble is a generic geological term for any stone having dimensions between 2.5–10 inches. A cobbled area is known as a "causey", "cassay" or "cassie" in Scots (probably from causeway).

Cobblestones are typically either set in sand or similar material, or are bound together with mortar. Paving with cobblestones allows a road to be heavily used all year long. It prevents the build-up of ruts often found in dirt roads. It has the additional advantage of not getting muddy in wet weather or dusty in dry weather. The fact that carriage wheels, horse hooves and even modern automobiles make a lot of noise when rolling over cobblestone paving might be thought a disadvantage, but it has the advantage of warning pedestrians of their approach. In England, the custom was to strew the cobbles outside the house of a sick or dying person with straw to dampen the sound.

Cobblestones set in sand have the environmental advantage of being permeable paving, and of moving rather than cracking with movements in the ground.

In the Finger Lakes Region of New York State, the retreat of the glaciers during the last ice age left numerous small, rounded cobblestones available for building. PreCivil War architecture in the region made heavy use of cobblestones for walls. Today, the fewer than 600 remaining cobblestone buildings are prized as historic

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locations, most of them private homes. They are clustered south of Lake Ontario, between Buffalo and Syracuse. There is also a cluster of cobblestone buildings in the Town of Paris, Ontario. In addition to homes, cobblestones were used to build barns, stagecoach taverns, smokehouses, stores, churches, schools, factories, and cemetery markers. The history of building with cobblestones and 17 driving tours to see the remaining structures are found in "Cobblestone Quest - Road Tours of New York's Historic Buildings".

Задание 5. Прочитайте и переведите данные ниже предложения. На основе всех сведений, полученных об обозначенном понятии, составьте учебный текст на английском языке.

Paving of the streets with cobblestones began.

The cobble stones of some of the city's streets were replaced by asphalt and wooden blocks, metal bridges replaced wooden ones, and street lighting was improved.

Задание 6. Изучите таблицу, выпишите транскрипцию терминов из словаря. Используйте полученную информацию при выполнении следующего задания.

Задание 7. Сопоставьте толкования понятий с переводом, дополните, где необходимо, информацию.

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Задание 8. Прочитайте и переведите данные ниже предложения. На основе всех сведений, полученных об обозначенном понятии, составьте учебный текст на английском языке и опорную схему «Типы гравия».

Gravel is an important commercial product, with a number of applications. Concrete is an artificial stone, made by thoroughly mixing such natural ingredients

or aggregates as cement, sand and gravel or broken stone together with sufficient water to produce a mixture of the proper consistency.

As aggregates such natural materials as sand, pebbles, broken stone, broken brick, gravel, slag, cinder, pumice and others can be used.

Cement is often mixed with sand or gravel, in which case we get concrete. Gravel with stones sized roughly between 5 and 15 millimeter.

Multiple types of gravel have been recognized, including: Bank gravel: gravel intermixed with sand or clay.

Bench gravel: a bed of gravel located on the side of a valley above the present stream bottom, indicating the former location of the stream bed when it was at a higher level.

Creek rock: this is generally rounded, semi-polished stones, potentially of a wide range of types, that are dredged or scooped from river beds and creek beds. It is also often used as concrete aggregate and less often as a paving surface.

Crushed rock: rock that is mechanically broken into small pieces then sorted by filtering through different size mesh.

Crushed stone: this is generally limestone or dolomite that has been crushed and graded by screens to certain size classes. It is widely used in concrete and as a surfacing for roads and driveways, sometimes with tar applied over it. Crushed stone may also be made from granite and other rocks. A special type of limestone crushed stone is dense grade aggregate, or DGA, also known as crusher run, or colloquially as "crush and run". This is a mixed grade of mostly small crushed stone in a matrix of crushed limestone powder.

Fine gravel: gravel consisting of particles with a diameter of 2 to 4 mm.

Lag gravel: a surface accumulation of coarse gravel produced by the removal of finer particles.

Pay gravel: also known as "pay dirt"; a nickname for gravel with a high concentration of gold and other precious metals. The metals are recovered through gold panning.

Pea gravel: gravel that consists of small, rounded stones used in concrete surfaces. Also used for walkways, driveways and as a substrate in home aquariums.

Piedmont gravel: a coarse gravel carried down from high places by mountain streams and deposited on relatively flat ground, where the water runs more slowly.

Plateau gravel: a layer of gravel on a plateau or other region above the height at which stream-terrace gravel is usually found.

River run gravel: naturally deposited gravel found in and next to rivers and streams.

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Задание 9. Изучите таблицу, выпишите транскрипцию терминов из словаря. Используйте полученную информацию при выполнении следующего задания.

Задание 10. Сопоставьте толкование понятия с переводом. Дополните недостающую информацию. Используйте следующие выражения:

полевой шпат – felspar

декоративный облицовочный материал – decorative facing material кислотоупорная облицовка – acidproof facing

Задание 11. Прочитайте и переведите данные ниже предложения и тексты. На основе сведений, полученных об обозначенном понятии, составьте учебный текст на английском языке.

Granite

Sometimes natural stones such as marble, granite, basalt, limestone and sandstone are used for the construction of dams and foundations. Marble, granite and sandstone are widely used for decorative purposes as well, especially with the public buildings.

In some areas granite is used for gravestones and memorials. Granite is a hard stone and requires skill to carve by hand. Until the early 18th century, in the Western world, granite could only be carved by hand tools with generally poor results.

A key breakthrough was the invention of steam-powered cutting and dressing tools by Alexander MacDonald of Aberdeen, inspired by seeing ancient Egyptian granite carvings. In 1832 the first polished tombstone of Aberdeen granite to be erected in an English cemetery was installed at Kensal Green cemetery. It caused a sensation in the London monumental trade and for some years all polished granite ordered came from MacDonalds. Working with the sculptor William Leslie, and later Sidney Field, granite memorials became a major status symbol in Victorian Britain. The royal sarcophagus at Frogmore was probably the pinnacle of its work, and at 30 tons one of the largest. It was not until the 1880s that rival machinery and works could compete with the MacDonald works.

Modern methods of carving include using computer-controlled rotary bits and sandblasting over a rubber stencil. Leaving the letters, numbers and emblems exposed on the stone, the blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.

Granite has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as flooring tiles in public and commercial buildings and monuments. Aberdeen in Scotland, which is constructed principally from local granite, is known as "The Granite City". Because of its abundance, granite was commonly used to build foundations for homes in New England. The Granite Railway, America's first railroad, was built to haul granite from the quarries in Quincy, Massachusetts, to the Neponset River in the 1820s. With increasing amounts of acid rain in parts of the world, granite has begun to supplant marble as a monument material, since it is much more durable. Polished granite is also a popular choice for kitchen countertops due to its high durability and aesthetic qualities. In building and for countertops, the term "granite" is often applied to all igneous rocks with large crystals, and not specifically to those with a granitic composition.

Задание 12. На основе информации, данной в переводе, и текста, представленного после таблицы, дайте развернутое толкование понятия. Используйте следующие выражения:

удовлетворяющие требованиям – fulfil requirements

прочность на сжатие – compressive resistance, compressive strength

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