other criticisms of their views, many of them justified. Aris totle's final causes are too this worldly to encompass human aspirations, and Plato's too other-worldly to do justice to the organic relations between concrete entities. Both conceive of goals as too fixed, too determinate, too formal, too future, and too positive to accommodate evolutionary change and adapta tion, freedom, vague and confused goals and directions, par ticular attachments, present enjoyments and distress, conserva tive motives, feelings of relief from or nostalgia for the past, and negative goals or "objectives" in addition to positive goals or objectives. In order to develop a ideological view insuscep tible to these criticisms, we must at this point abandon our classical guides who have led us this far and trek on by our selves, in part along paths blazed by such modem teleologists as Whitehead and Weiss.
12. Despite the great variation in nature, from the human to the inorganic, certain universal features stand out. Nature manifests itself throughout as a domain of individual contin uants interacting through time in a space that relates them. These individuals are natural units, both simple (the sub-atomic particles) and compounded in various ways as atoms, mole cules, physical objects, and living organisms. Their unity is not timeless or isolate or simple, however, because it is a unity of distinguishable aspects and pans achieved and maintained in
die face of their changing interactions with one another. It is a multifaceted, threatened, tensed unity. If there be a shared ten dency for all natural existents, it is, I think, the tendency of each to integrate itself, to be self-unifying. Otherwise they would have no continuing, distinctive integrity in the face of pressures towards disintegration. An actual value, then, may be defined as the role of any entity, aspects of an entity, or possi bility in the integrative motivation (or tendency) of beings. That role may be a good, bad, or indifferent value for the being concerned and of varying qualities and degrees of importance.
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And each entity, aspect, or possibility can play different roles in the motivational economies of different beings and even within the complex motivational economy of a single being thus making it to have multiple values simultaneously.
13. We can specify and illustrate the nature of integrative motivation by dividing it into three equally universal analytic components: the conservative, the responsive, and the innova tive. Without the conservative or preservative motive, a being would have no integrity through time. Its nature at one instant would have no bearing on its nature in the next and there would be no basis for identifying it as a continuant. When we witness resistance to change and consolidation of control of already established achievements on the part of inanimate, living, and human beings, we are witnessing conservatively motivated be haviour, a sort of inertia or selflove. Insofar as the motivation or tendencies of a being are conservative, it is a positive value to itself as it is and as it is already tending. The telic fact of conservative motivation entails the correlative self-identity and self-valuation of the existent so motivated.
14. A purely conservative or inertial being is one with no future and no world of independent others. Such a being would suffer no threats to the status quo, no disintegrating pressures, and thus it would lack any occasion even to exercise a conser vatively oriented integrative motivation. There is no such be ing. None is self-contained. Each shares a world with others, to some extent merging with and participating in them. Otherwise they would be non-interactive Leibnizean monads. In integrat ing themselves they must come to terms with the others in whose existence they participate. Their integrative motivation demands that they be in some way responsive as they integrate aspects of themselves tied through a public world to beings other than themselves. They may attract or assimilate what is compatible or repel and resist the incompatible. So I think, phenomena of attraction and repulsion, approach and avoid
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ance, assimilation and rejection among physical and biological entities (as well as humans) can be understood as functions of the integrative motivation of beings having public ties with one another. Because of the telic facts of responsive coexistence, beings have positive and negative values for one another. No consciousness need be posited for these values to obtain. Only a being's tendency to maintain itself as an integral being in a world it shares with others need be presupposed. This is a very different claim than the more monistic thesis that the universe as a whole is self-integrative. The self-integration of each in dividual is responsible for discord as well as harmony between individuals, and there is no guarantee from this process alone that harmony will prevail over discord.
15. Self-preservation and positive or negative responsive ness are two aspects of a being's integrative tendency. An in novative resolve is a third. An individual's valuations of itself and the other beings with which it comes in contact are mani fold, a set of divergent tendencies. None of these tendencies can be followed all the way because each is only a pan of an individual's entire integrative motivation. In order to integrate itself, a being must continually forge a resolution of these di vergent tendencies not necessarily like any resolution in the past. This inventive tendency of an individual thus values unre alized possibilities for a modification of itself and its world, a future that might be. In this fashion a principle of unrest or po tential for change is inherent in every integrative being; each has a degree of freedom from what it has been and from its en vironment. This freedom is held under restraint, however, by the other tendencies to self-preservation and adaptation to the environment with which it is conjoined, thus making possible predictive common sense and sciences based on past and pres ent natures and relations of things in the world.
16. Each of these three basic components of motivation; the conservative, the responsive and the innovative; as well as
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their subdivisions, qualify one another. All motivation is multi faceted and compromising in nature. Real individuals are con stant and fluid, self-determining and environmentally deter mined, reaching for the stars while implanted in clay. A being that is purely atomic and inertial, utterly changeable and free or merely contemporary field of forces is a fiction arrived at by idealizing one component of motivation while forgetting the others. Yet such an idealization is as legitimate in value theory as in physics in order to understand the actual behavior of existents as an outcome of intellectually distinguishable factors, a sort of vector-sum of tendencies and values. Because the be havioral outcome of such multi-directional motivation is es sentially a compromise, we must always distinguish between the behavior, which gives evidence of motives and the motives themselves. And we can understand ambivalent values and confused and indeterminate goals as arising when a being is motivated to integrate values, which cannot be compatibly in tegrated as it forges its motivational compromise and innovation.
17. This account, restricted as it is to the sphere of value correlative with actual motives, is clearly incomplete. There are conditional values or needs, which may be the objects of no motives themselves but which are causally related to values which are motivationally adhered to. Possible values or valu ables may attract no actual motives at present, but they might
at some other time. "Peace on Earth, good will to men" does not cease to be valuable when everyone is at war, even though no one may be valuing it. And ideal values or standards are criteria for ranking actual values through comparative judg ments, without necessarily themselves being primary values. It takes no great enthusiasm for being honest oneself in order to rank the degrees of honesty of others. These other dimensions of value require completion to provide for ethics, but they all refer back, I maintain, to values as they are found in relation to motives.
Proceedings of the XVth World Congress of Philosophy. М., 1994.
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Models of Illness and the Theory of Society: Parsons’ Contri bution to the Early History ofMedical Sociology
Parsons' medical sociology has recently been recognised for its importance to his theory of society. But the double focus of his explanations of illness is not yet widely understood. It comprises a capacity model based on economic thinking, and a deviancy model based on psychoanalytic thought.
In the 1930s and 1940s Parsons undertook to understand medical practice in order to focus on liberal democracy in modem society. He used medical practice as an example and also as a metaphor to demonstrate the mechanisms of liberal democracy as against those of capitalism, socialism and the then contemporary fascism.
By considering this background, the link between models of illness and the theory of society, established in The Social System, ought to have been recognised by Parsons' critics who then might not have charged him with advocating a nondemocratic solution to the problem of how social order is pos sible. By recommending the recognition of the double focus of Parsons' illness explanation, and its viability for his theory of action systems, it is argued that Parsons was criticised too readily in the 1960s and that his humanist standpoint can be re covered by focussing on his early contribution to medical soci ology.
International Sociology. 1990. Sept. Vol. 5, No 5.
Prospectsfor the Development in Russia
o f ".Information Society"
Since in Russia the subject field of studies within the frame works of tiie "Internet and Contemporary Society" interdiscipli nary complex of problems is just being formed, the author begins his article with a review of theoretical approaches to the study of "information society" that are available in the world science. Then, on having curtly outlined the situation in Russian science
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