Материал: Management-and-Organization-Behavior

Shifting the blame for negative results on external factors.

v. Misrepresenting

Manipulating of information by distorting, embellishing and selectively representing it.

vi.Escalation of Commitment By throwing good money (additional resources) after bad money (poor decisions and failing courses of action) to demonstrate confidence in the past actions and consistency over time.

Avoiding change

When people feel threatened by change they resort to the following behaviours

i.Resisting Change: This is a catch-all phase under which many defensive bahaviours are covered.

ii.Protecting Turf: Fencing the job territory to avoid encroachment.

Immediate consequence of defensive behaviours is reduced organisational effectiveness. Their long-term consequences are organisational stagnation, detachment from organisational environment, highly politicized organisational culture and low morale.

Review Questions

1.Define Power, authority and influence.

2.Explain the importance of power and its characteristics?

3.How are sources of power different from bases of power? Illustrate with examples.

4.Describe power tactics.

5.Define organisational politics. What are its determinants?

6.Explain the defensive behaviours in organisational politics with their corresponding objectives.

7.Discuss strategies for acquisition of power in organisations.

8.What is contingency model of power?

9.From your over-all understanding of the working of power, authority and influence and general awareness, explain your understanding on the process of ‘empowerment.’

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Lesson - 23 : Organisational Structure, Climate And Culture

Objectives

After reading this lesson, you should be able to:

ӹӹUnderstand The Concept Of Organizational Structure;

ӹӹIdentify The Factors Determining Organizational Structure;

ӹӹRecall The Major Dimensions Of Organizational Climate; And

ӹӹExplain The Characteristics Of Organizational Culture.

Lesson Outline

ӹӹFactors Determining Organizational Structure

ӹӹBases Or Forms Of Departmentalization

ӹӹHorizontal & Vertical Dimension Of Organizational Structure

ӹӹTraditional,Modern,Commercial&NonCommercialOrganizational Structure

ӹӹMajor Dimensions Of Organizational Climate

ӹӹMeaning & Characteristics Of Organizational Culture

ӹӹReview Questions

Organizational structure provides the framework for managers and others for performing the various functions expected of them and for facilitating the work flow in the organisation. A sound structure facilitates performance. The managerial process of organising results in the creation of a formal organisational structure which is defined as a system of patterned and interrelated task units with well defined authority-responsibility relationships. It is called formal structure since it is deliberately and purposefully planned and designed by management. The formal organisational structure has two

‘dimensions’. They are: horizontal dimension and vertical dimension.

The horizontal and vertical dimensions of the organisational structure,viz., the activity structure and authority structures are tied together. The managerial positions are not created in a vacuum; they are created around the sub-divided task units.Organisational goals.technology, external environment and the people in the organization greatly influence the design of the structure.

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The Horizontal Dimension of Organisational Structure

The horizontal dimension consists of the various activities or working units created through the process of departmentation and is called the activity structure. In a manufacturing enterprise, the activity structure consists of the various tasks or activity spheres.Departments like purchasing, production, R & D, human resources, accounts, marketing and so on are created by that logic..

Departmentation: The concept of departmentation, is one of the important steps in the design of formal structure of an organisation. Departmentation involves a systematic sub-division of activities into individual jobs, the grouping of jobs into work-units and the integration of units into departments. The departments so created have lateral relations to each other. Thus departmentation creates the lateral or horizontal activity structure of the organisation.There are several alternative ways in which organisational activities are grouped into work units. These are called the bases or forms of departmentation. The major bases or forms are: Function, process or equipment, product, customer and geographical area.

Vertical Dimension of Organisational Structure

Authority is the formal right vested in a managerial position to undertake certain managerial tasks, to make decisions, to give directions to subordinates and to influence events for achieving certain goals. The concepts of authority, responsibility and accountability have particular relevance for understanding the process of delegation of authority. The concept of responsibility has two connotations. In one sense, it is the set of tasks or duties assigned to a person. In another sense, it is corollary of authority and is the obligation of a person to whom authority is delegated, to act in response to an order issued by his superior. Accountability is often used as a synonym to responsibility. In other words, accountability and responsibility have the same meaning. Some others, however, distinguish between accountability and responsibility by defining accountability as personal answerability for decisions, actions and results on the part of a subordinate to his superior. The vertical axis of the organisational structure thus consists of the hierarchy of management or the network of managerial authority levels. The hierarchy of management is established through the process of vertical differentiation and integration of authority.

Modern Organisational Structures

Traditional structures are regarded as somewhat out of step with contemporary requirements and realities of rapid change, uncertainty and complexity of environment. Attempts are hence made to modify the traditional structures so as to evolve refined forms of structure. These are variously

described as systems structure, project structure, programme structure,

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matrix structure, task force structure and free form structure. These modern structures are regarded as more organic, adaptive, and flexible and are suitable for complex organisations which employ highly sophisticated technology and which encounter a very diverse and volatile environment.

Organisational Climate

The term, ‘Organisational climate’ is defined as a relatively enduring quality of the internal environment of an organisation as perceived and experienced by its members, which can be described in terms of specific dimensions or characteristics and which influences the patterns of behaviour and work performance of members. It is the totality of interacting and interrelated internal dimensions or characteristics which significantly influence the motivation of members. Organisation climate evolves over a fairly long period of time and is relatively stable. Since the dimensions of climate are internal, they can be measured, controlled and changed by the organisation, if it so decides. Organisational climate is the major frame of reference for the member’s interpretation of organisational decisions and actions as also their own attitudes, behaviour and performance.

The major dimensions or characteristics of organisational climate are listed below:

-- Organisational values, goals and priorities which are pursued in practice as against those which are professed.

-- Managerial value systems and life styles.

-- Competence, character, commitment and dynamism of management. -- The complexion of organisational policies and practices and the

consistency with which they are followed.

-- The power structure - the extent of concentration or dispersal of authority, the extent to which and the manner in which formal authority is exercised, the extent of status disparities, social distance between managers at various levels and between managers and nonmanagers and so on.

-- General organisational structure-hierarchy, rigidity vs. flexibility, clarity of the structure, communication and control systems, superior-subordinate relations, informal social relationships, etc.

-- Nature of jobs – degree of skill required, relation between effort and

-- Reward structure – reward levels and interrelations, equity in reward

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structures, monetary and non-monetary rewards.

-- Organisational approach to conflict and dissent, amicable resolution or suppression of conflict.

-- The physical working conditions in the organisation.

Factors Affecting Organisational Climate

Factors affecting organizational climate differ from organization to organization. In some organizations certain factors like structure, or process plays a major role and in some other organizations, technology might be the major factor influencing the climate. However the major factors, according to Lawrence James and Allan Jones affecting the organizational climate can be grouped under the following heads:

Organizational content: The reactions of the employees and the degree to which they welcome and accept the managerial philosophy is very crucial to the development of sound and favorable organizational climate. The climate is said to be highly favorable when the existing management techniques are such that employees goals are perfectly matched to the ideas of organizations.

Structure: Structure is the framework that establishes formal relationship and delineates authority and functional responsibility. It is generally believed that decentralized structure results in sound climate. In sharp contrast, if the management feels the necessity of maintaining greater degree of consistency in operations regarding decision-making, it will be wedded to centralized structure.

Process: In every organization certain processes are vital so that it functions. Communication, decision making, motivation and leadership are some of the important processes through which management achieves the tasks. For instance, if we consider leader-follower relationship, leadership process, it is leader’s choice whether to allow subordinates in decision-making, give assignments, etc. A leader has to be aware of the possible influence of his actions on the climate while deciding about the most appropriate supervisory technique for a given situation. It should be noted that failure to give consideration to the effect on climate could cause great harm to the organization.

Physical Environment: the external conditions of environment, the size, location of the work place etc., will also affect organizational climate. An employee performing his job in relatively clean, quiet, safe environment will undoubtedly have a favorable perception of the organizational climate. Noise has also been considered instrumental in influencing the climate of an organizational.

System Values and Norms: Every organization has discernible and fairly formal value system where certain kinds of behaviors are rewarded and

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