to top decision makers, getting early information about decisions and policy shifts, getting above-average salary increases for subordinates, etc.
Knowledge Power
Knowledge or access to information is the final use or base of power. When an individual in a group or organisation controls unique information needed to make decisions, then he processes knowledge-based power.
Influenceability of Targets of Power
So far our discussion has confirmed the unilateral influence of power from the agent (power holder) to targets (other persons). Power relationship as a reciprocal relationship can be better understood by focusing attention on characteristics of targets. Influenceability of targets depends on the following:
Dependency
Power is a function of dependency. The general dependence postulates that the greater the dependency of the target on the agent, the greater the power the agent has over the target. Dependency increases when the resources controlled by the agent are important, scare and non-substitutable. The scarcity - dependency relationship can be clearly seen in occupational groups where supply of skills is low relative to demand for them.
Uncertainty
When people have a feeling of uncertainty about the correctness of their behaviour, they are more susceptible to influence.
Personality
Persons with personality characters like low tolerance for ambiguity and high anxiety (fear of failure) are more likely to be influenced.
Intelligence
Relationship between intelligence and influenceability is complex. In some cases it is positive whereas in other cases negative, since highly intelligent people being held in high esteem may resist being influenced.
Gender
It is traditionally believed that women are more likely to be influenced than men, because of the way the former are brought up. As the role of women is fast changing and they are more empowered now, there is a perceptible change, of late.
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Culture
Western cultures that emphasize individuality, dissent and diversity tend to decrease influenceability whereas Asian cultures that emphasize cohesiveness, agreement and uniformity promote influenceability.
Contingency Model of Power
Accordingtothismodel,targetwillcomplytogainoravoidpunishment. In order to gain compliance to work, the superiors must be able to reward and punish subordinates and keep surveillance over them. But the agent must have referent power, that is, very attractive to the target. The agent must also be in the forefront of targets awareness. People will internailse because of compatibility with their own value structure. For people to internalize the agent must have expert or legitimate power and be relevant. Internalized power has a lasting impact.
Power Tactics
Let us understand how employees in oranisations translate their power bases into specific actions. Findings of research on managers identified seven power tactics:
i.reason;
ii.friendliness
iii.collation (getting the support of other people in the organisation to back up the support);
iv.bargaining (negotiations for exchange of favours);
v.assertiveness;
vi.higher authority (gaining the support of higher levels in the organisation to back up requests);
vii.sanctions (using organizationally derived rewards and punishments).
Manager’s relative power in the organisaton determines tactics selection. They also change their tactics depending upon their objectives in the upward and downward influences. Choice of tactics depends upon expectations of success. Assertiveness and sanctions are used when success is less predictable. Different cultures prevalent in the organisation also have significant bearing on the choice of power tactics.
Power Dynamics in Organisations
Power dynamics in organisation relate to political realities of power acquisition in organisations and the specific political strategies in power acquisition.
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Political Behaviour
One perspective of political behaviour is, large organisations are like governments in the sense that they are fundamentally political entities. Political behaviour in the organisation refers to those activities not required by one’s formal role definition in the organisation. Political perspective of organisation departs from the classical idealistic, rational organization. Four postulates of power by Walter Nod focus on political realities in the
organisation. One, organisations are composed of competing coalitions.
Second, various coalitions seek to protect their interests and positions. Third, unequal power distribution has dehumanizing effect. Fourth, exercising power within organisation.
Factors Contributing to Political Behaviour
Individual and organisational factors can increases political behaviour and provide favourable outcomes (rewards and averted punishments).
Individual Factors
High self-monitors being sensitive to social cues and social conformity, are more skillful in political behaviour than low self-monitors. Individuals with internal locus of control (those who believe they can control their environment) are proactive and manipulate situations in their favour. A person having high expectation of increased future benefits will lose if forced out; hence he is more likely to use illegitimate means (extreme political behaviour). More alternative job opportunities a person has, more likely he is to use legitimate means (normal every day politics).
Organisational Factors
(i) Resources
Degree of politics, criticality and scarcity of resources in organisation are directly related. Politics surface when the resources are declining and their existing pattern is changing. Infusion of new and unclaimed resources will lead to high political behaviour.
(ii) Trust
Low trust in organisation results in higher political behaviour, that too illegitimate type.
(iii) Cultural Factors
Role ambiguity (lack of clarity in role definition), ambiguous decisions and decisions on which there is a lack of agreement and uncertain, long range strategic decision, zero-sum reward allocation practices (one man’s gain is other man’s loss), democratic decision-making, performance evaluation systems and self-seeking senior managers, will be sources of conflicts and thereby high politicking. Higher the pressure on performance employees feel, the greater the likelihood of their resorting to politics.
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(iv) Technology and External Environment
Complex technology and turbulent external environment lead to high political behaviour.
(v) Change
Planned organisation change or unplanned change brought about by external environment forces will encourage political behaviour.
Specific Political Strategies for Power Acquisition
Organisational members adopt different strategies to acquire power. Durkin suggested strategies listed below help to gain deeper insights into power and politics in the organisations.
a. Maintain alliance with powerful people
Alliances with members of other important departments or of top management or with boss’s secretary or staff assistant are critical to acquisition of power.
b. Embrace or Demolish
The guiding Machiavellian principle is that senior managers in the taken over firms should be welcomed and encouraged or sacked. To make them powerless it is better to sack them than to downgrade them. If downgraded, they combine and fight back.
c. Divide and Rule
This is a popular strategy based on the assumption though unwarranted, that persons divided will not themselves form coalition.
d. Manipulate classified information
Organisational members adept in politics control information so as to gain power.
e. Make a quick showing
Looking good on some project or task right at the beginning is to get the right people’s attention. Once this positive attention is gained, power is acquired to do more difficult and long-range projects.
f. Collect and Use IOUs
Do favours to others with clear understanding that they should pay in return when asked.
g. Avoid decisive engagement
Also called Fabianism: Be slow, but sure to become entrenched and gain cooperation and trust of others.
h. Progress one step at a time
One small change can be a foothold for power seeker to use it as a basis to get other major things accomplished.
i.Wait for a crisis
It is based on the assumption things must get worse before they turn better. Crisis conditions bring more resources that facilitate tiding over crisis.
j.Take Counsel with Caution
This relates to how to retain power rather than how to acquire it. For example, prescriptions like participative management and empowerment are to be taken with caution as they erode the power base of managers.
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Defensive Behaviour as a part of Organisational Politics
Individuals in the organisation engage quite often in reactive and protective defensive behavior with the objective of avoiding action, balances or change. Each of the objectives of defensive behaviour is illustrated in the following lines.
Avoiding Action
Here are six popular ways to avoid action.
i.Over conforming
Rigid Adherence to politics, rules and precedents to avoid action in a particular case.
ii. Buck Passing
Transferring responsibility for action or decision making to some one else in the organisation.
iii. Playing Dumb
False pleading of ignorance or inability to avoid an unwanted task.
iv. Depersonalisation
To avoid becoming personally involved, people are treated as objects and numbers. This distancing from them avoids problems and the need for considering their idiosyncrasies and impact of events on them.
v. Stretching and Smoothing
Stretching is prolonging task. Smoothing refers to covering up fluctuations in effort or output. Both are designs to give semblance of being busy and productive.
vi.Stalling
Being supportive publicly while doing little or nothing privately.
Avoiding Blame
The following behaviours are intended to avoid blame, or actual or anticipated negative results.
i.Buffing
Documenting activity to projection image of competence and thoroughness
ii. Playing Safe
Taking only profitable projects, having risky decisions approved by superiors, qualifying judgements and taking neutral positions in conflict situationsall are to evade situations pregnant with unfavourable outcomes.
iii. Justifying
Developing explanations to minimize responsibility for negative result and/ or apologizing to demonstrate remorse.
iv. Scapegoating
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