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the operation and derive their legitimacy from representing the international community as a whole. Examples of traditional peacekeeping operations include the operations in Cyprus, which have separated the Greek and Turkish communities (1964) ; in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, disputed by India and Pakistan (1949) ; and in the Golan Heights, between Israel and Syria ( 1974).

Often referred to as ‘Blue Berets’ or ‘Blue Helmets’, the military units in peacekeeping operations remain members of their own national armies with their own command and control, but serve under a UN-appointed local commander. For a peacekeeping operation to succeed, it needs to secure not only the co-operation of the conflicting parties, but also of the international community, including regional and non-governmental organizations, donors, and member states.

Since the end of the Cold War, superpower constraints no longer hinder effective execution of policy at the UN and international intervention now encompasses the issues of common concern and collective security as originally intended in the UN Charter. Concurrently there has been a drastic increase in civil conflicts, with 90 per cent of deaths being civilian. Correspondingly, the number of Security Council resolutions on peacekeeping around the world has also increased significantly.

Peacekeeping today therefore comprises a wider range of activities, which has prompted the introduction of new terms in military, political, and academic circles. Subsequent operations have used even more robust rules of engagement, often in situations where there is no ceasefire nor a peace to keep. Here, the term ‘peace enforcement’ has been used to describe these operations, complying with the notion of ‘collective security’, as described in Chapter 7, Article 42, of the UN Charter: ‘the Security Council … may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of members of the United Nations’.

Peace enforcement thus takes place when the Security Council authorizes member states to use ‘all necessary means’ to prohibit or check acts of aggression, and deal with armed conflict or threats to peace, and not always with the consent of the parties on the ground.

Some peace-enforcement missions have been controlled by leading states, as the USA initially did in Haiti and Somalia, or France in Rwanda. Peace enforcement operations are authorized by the Security Council only as a last resort, when all other peaceful means have been exhausted.

Today's complex missions incorporate political, military, and humanitarian activities—depending on the needs and mandate of the operation—which

have built upon traditional UN peacekeeping. UN troops now have increased responsibility to undertake tasks as diverse as preventing the outbreak of hostilities,; disarming, demobilizing, and reintegrating troops to secure the conflict area, creating buffer zones, and monitoring troop withdrawals; providing security for repatriation of refugees and for elections, and helping to rebuild infrastructure; protecting and delivering humanitarian relief; guaranteeing free access or denying such access to belligerents,; and clearing landmines.

Civilian police trainers, electoral observers, human-rights monitors, and others have also joined military UN peacekeepers in some operations, and they too participate in peace-building and peacemaking activities. Another term that is used to describe the current array of military options in complex political environments that require several simultaneous responses, is ‘peace-support operation’. This term subsumes traditional Chapter 6 peacekeeping operations and Chapter 7 peace-enforcement operations, since many missions now incorporate both. A final term utilized to describe operations that are situated between defensive peacekeeping and intensive peace enforcement is ‘peace maintenance’. This term incorporates political negotiations, humanitarian assistance, the use of force, and the rebuilding of civil society.

Exercise 1 Find these words and word combinations in the text.

a)миротворческие операции

b)быть санкционированным Советом Безопасности ООН

c)ввод войск ООН

d)содействовать прекращению огня

e)быть беспристрастными

f)гарант мира

g)операция по поддержанию мира

Exercise 2 Say if the sentences are true or false.

1.Peacekeeping operations are authorized by the Security Council, endowed by the UN Charter.

2.The UN never tried to act as an independent power in its own right.3. The Security Council maintains authority over the operation, expressed through the Secretary-General of the UN and the military commander, authorized under Chapter 6 of the Charter.

4.UN troops, voluntarily provided by member states, can not use force in selfdefence or in defence of their mandate.

5.Peacekeeping today therefore comprises a wider range of activities.

6.A final term utilized to describe operations that are situated between defensive peacekeeping and intensive peace enforcement is ‘peace support’.

Exerctse 3 Complete these sentences.

1.A traditional peacekeeping operation is established when ______________

2.The UN peace0keepers are referred to as __________________

3.For a peacekeeping operation to succeed, it needs _____________

4.Today's complex missions incorporate ___________________

5.Another term that is used to describe the current array of military options is

__________________

6.This term ‘peace maintenance’ incorporates _________________

Exercise 4 Answer these questions.

1.What kind of action is peacekeeping?

2.What is a traditional peacekeeping operation ? 3.What activities does peacekeeping comprise today ? 4.What does peace-support operation’ incorporate?

Total : 23

Your score :_________________

TEXT 9.

Ten Rules Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets

Dress, think, talk, act and behave in a manner befitting the dignity of a disciplined, caring, considerate, mature, respected and trusted soldier, displaying the highest integrity and impartiality.

Have pride in your position as a peace-keeper and do not abuse or misuse your authority.

Respect the law of the land of the host country, their local culture, traditions,

customs and practices.

Treat the inhabitants of the host country with respect, courtesy and consideration.

You are there as a guest to help them and in so doing will be welcomed with admiration.

Neither solicit or accept any material reward, honor or gift.

Do not indulge in immoral acts of sexual, physical or psychological abuse or exploitation of the local population or United Nations staff, especially

women and children.

Respect and regard the human rights of all. Support and aid the infirm, sick and weak. Do not act in revenge or with malice, in particular when dealing with prisoners, detainees or people in your custody.

Properly care for and account for all United Nations money, vehicles, equipment and property assigned to you and do not trade or barter with them to seek personal benefits.

Show military courtesy and pay appropriate compliments to all members of the mission, including other United Nations contingents regardless of their creed, gender, rank or origin.

Show respect for and promote the environment, including the flora and fauna, of the host country.

Do not engage in excessive consumption of alcohol or traffic in drugs. Exercise the utmost discretion in handling confidential information and matters of official business which can put lives into danger or soil the image of the United Nations.

Exercise 1 Find these words and word combinations in the text.

a)the dignity of soldier

b)to abuse or misuse your authority.

c)to treat the inhabitants of the host country d)to accept any material reward

e)to show courtesy

f)excessive consumption of alcohol

g)to soil the image .

Exercise 2 Fill in the appropriate prepositions.

1.Blue Helmets dress, think, talk, act and behave _____ a manner befitting the dignity of a disciplined, caring, considerate, mature, respected and trusted soldier.

2.Blue Helmets have pride __their position as a peace-keeper.

3. Blue Helmets treat the inhabitants of the host country ___respect, courtesy and consideration.

4.Blue Helmets care___ or all United Nations money, vehicles, equipment and property.

5.Blue Helmets show military courtesy and pay appropriate compliments ___all members of the mission.

6.Blue Helmets exercise the utmost discretion___handling confidential

information and matters of official business.

Exerctse 3 Complete these sentences.

Blue Helmets never indulge in ______________

The UN peace-keepers do not act in revenge or with malice, in particular when

__________________

The UN peace-keepers Show military courtesy and pay appropriate compliments to all members of the mission regardless of ___________

The UN peace-keepers show respect for and promote the environment, including __________________

It is prohibited to engage in _____________

Everybody should exercise the utmost discretion in ____________________

Total : 19

Your score :_________________

TEXT 9

Amnesty International and Armed Conflicts

Where wars erupt, suffering and hardship invariably follow. Conflict is the breeding ground for mass violations of human rights including unlawful killings, torture, forced displacement and starvation.In conflicts across the globe, governments and armed groups routinely attack civilians and commit war crimes and terrible abuses of human rights. And yet, even in war there are rules that all sides are legally bound to obey. International humanitarian law (IHL), also known as the laws of armed conflict or the laws of war, has developed in order to mitigate the effects of such conflict. It limits the means and methods of conducting military operations. Its rules oblige combatants to spare civilians and those who no longer participate in hostilities, such as soldiers who have been wounded or have surrendered. IHL applies only during armed conflict; human rights law applies in war and peace.But powerful nations have shown a sinister willingness to manipulate international institutions or apply double standards, often arming forces known to commit mass abuses while disclaiming responsibility for the carnage.Although international organizations such as the United Nations have advanced in their capacity to monitor and report on human rights in conflict situations, few perpetrators of mass abuses against civilians are held accountable.Continuing violence feeds on unresolved grievances arising