Characteristics of Leadership
An analysis of the above definitions reveals that leadership as a managerial process has the following characteristics:
1.Leadership is a process of influence: Leadership is a process whose important ingredient is the influence exercised by the leader on the group members. A person is said to have an influence over others when they are willing to carry out his wishes and accept his advice, guidance and direction. Successful leaders are able to influence the behavior, attitudes and beliefs of their followers.
2.Leadership is related to a situation: When we talk to leadership, it is always related to a particular situation at a given point of time and under a specific set of circumstances. That means leadership styles will be different under different circumstances. At one point of time, the subordinates may accept the autocratic behavior of the leader while at a different point of time and under a different situation participative leadership style may be successful.
3. Leadership is the function of stimulation: Leadership is the function of motivating people to strive willingly to attain organizational objectives. Leaders are considered successful when they are able to subordinate the individual interests of the employees to the general interests of the organization. A successful leader allows his subordinates to have their individual goals set up by themselves in such a way that they do not conflict with the organizational objectives.
Styles of Leadership
Leadership style refers to a leader’s behavior. Behavioral pattern which the leader reflects in his role as a leader is often described as the style of leadership. Leadership style is the result of leader’s philosophy, personality, experience, and value system. It also depends upon the types of followers and the organizational atmosphere prevailing in the enterprise.
Different types of leadership styles are:
i.Autocratic leadership;
ii.Participative leadership;
iii.Free rein leadership; and
iv.Paternalistic leadership.
i. Autocratic or Authoritarian Leadership
The autocratic leader gives orders which must be obeyed by the subordinates. He determines policies for the group without consulting them and does not give detailed information about future plans, but simply tells the group what immediate steps they must take. He gives personal praise
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or criticism to each member on his own initiative and remains aloof from the group for the major part of the time. Thus, under this style, all decisionmaking power is centralized in the leader. Leader adopting this style stresses his prerogative to decide and order and subordinates’ obligation to do what they are told to carry out.
Autocratic leadership may be negative because followers are uniformed, insecure and afraid of leader’s authority. Such a leader may be called the
strict autocrat who realizes on negative influences and gives orders which the subordinates must accept. Leadership can be positive also because the leader may use his power to disperse rewards to his group. When his motivational
style is positive, he is often called a benevolent autocrat. The benevolent autocrat is effective in getting high productivity in many situations and he can develop effective human relationships. There is another type of autocratic leader known as manipulative autocrat, who makes the subordinates feel that they are participating in decision-making process even though he has already taken the decision. An autocratic leader assumes that people basically work for money they and want security. Because of such assumptions about human beings, he exercises tight control and supervision over his subordinates. But these assumptions do not hold good in all the situations. If the motivational style is negative, people will dislike it. Frustration, low morale and conflict develop easily in autocratic situations.
ii. Participative or Democratic Leadership
A democratic leader is one who gives instructions only after consulting the group. He sees to it that policies are worked out in group discussions and with the acceptance of the group. Participative manager decentralizes managerial authority. His decisions are not unilateral like that of the autocratic leader. Unlike an autocratic manager who controls through the authority , a participative manager exercises control mostly by using forces within the group. Some of the advantages of participative leadership are:
-- It increases the acceptance of management’s ideas.
-- It improves the attitude of employees towards their jobs and the organization.
-- It increases the cooperation between management and employees. -- It leads to reduction in the number of complaints and grievances. -- It increases the morale of the employees.
iii. Free Rein or Laissez Faire Leadership
A free rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself. The free rein leader avoids power. He depends largely upon the group to establish its own goals and work out its own problems. Group members work themselves and provide their own motivation. The leader completely abdicates his leadership position by giving most of the work entrusted to him
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to the group which he is supposed to lead. This is also known as permissive style of leadership, where there is least intervention by the leader. Abdication of authority by the leader and letting the group to operate entirely on its own are the common features of this style. This mode of direction can produce good and quick results if the subordinates are highly educated, responsible and brilliant who have a strong desire and committment to give their best to the organization.
iv. Paternalistic Leadership
In this style, the leader assumes that his function is paternal or fatherly. His attitude is that of treating the relationship between the leader and his group as that of family with the leader as the head of family. He works to help, guide, protect, and keep his followers happily working together as members of a family. He provides them with good working conditions, fringe benefits and employee services. This style has been successful, particularly in Japan because of its cultural background. It is said that employees under such leadership will work harder out of gratitude.
Likert’s Management Systems and Leadership
Rinses Likert and his associates of the University of Michigan, had conducted extensive survey of management and leadership patterns in a large number of organizations. Within the basic style categories of task orientation and employee orientation, Likert developed a four level model of leadership effectiveness. These patterns of leadership are termed Systems of management and are assigned numbers from 1 to 4 to indicate the stages of evolution in the patterns of management in terms of leadership styles :
System 1 – Exploitative authoritative
System 2 – Benevolent authoritative
System 3 – Consultative
System 4 – Participative (Democratic)
SA brief description of these systems is given below:
System 1 - Management
System 1 managers make all the work – related decisions, and order their subordinates to carry them out. Standards and methods of performance are also set by the managers. The communication between the managers and the subordinates is highly formal in nature and downward in direction. The subordinates have absolutely no say in any matter in the organization. Such managers are highly autocratic who believe in threats and punishment to get the things done. They follow strict supervision over their subordinates.
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System 2 - Management
Managers under this system are also autocratic, but they are not fully authoritative. At times, they give some flexibility to the subordinates to carry out their tasks within the prescribed limits. Subordinates who meet or exceed their goals may be rewarded. Managers adopt patronizing or paternalistic attitude towards the obedient and faithful subordinates. They are very harsh with the subordinates who do not carry out the tasks.
System 3 - Management
Under this system, managers set goals and issue general orders after discussing them with the subordinates. They take only major decisions and leave the routine decisions to be taken by the subordinates. Subordinates are free to discuss the work-related matters with their superiors. Thus, there exists a two-way communication in the organization. The control system tends to be flexible and goal oriented. More emphasis is placed on rewards than on punishments to motivate the subordinates.
System 4 - Management
This is an ideal system towards which organizations should work. The relations between managers and subordinates are cordial and friendly. The communication system is completely open. The goals are set and work related decisions are taken by the subordinates. Group approach is adopted in supervision and control. Thus, system 4 presents true democratic styles of leadership. The managers are very supportive in their attitude towards the subordinates. Performance standards are mutually set by the superior and subordinates. They permit self – appraisal by the subordinates.
Likertsoughttomeasureandevaluatetheactualpatternsofmanagement in a wide range of organizations within the frame work of his four systems. He found that most individual mangers and organizations fit into one or the other in terms of certain operating characteristics related to such variables as goal setting, decision making, communication, and control. Likert also sought to relate his systems of management with certain performance characteristics like productivity, quality, wastage, and employee turnover and absenteeism. He found that organizations with System 1 orientation scored very poorly while those oriented with System 4 scored creditably on these performance characteristics. He strongly recommended System 4 and regarded it as the best way to develop and utilize human assets of the organization. Likert also found many managers and organizations operating in System 2 and 3. For such organizations, he suggested extensive and intensive leadership training at all levels of management so as to move into System 4 – management.
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Trait Theory of Leadership
Trait theory seeks to determine universal personal characteristics of effective leaders. Numerous physical, mental, and personality traits were researched during the period from 1930 to 1950. Leaders were characterized by a wide variety of traits ranging all the way from neatness to nobility. In the late 1940s, Ralph Stogdill reported on the basis of at least fifteen studies that leaders possess intelligence, scholarship, dependability in exercising responsibilities, activity and social participation and socio-economic status. He also found traits such as sociability, persistence, initiative, knowing how to get things done, self confidence, alertness, insight, cooperativeness, popularity, adaptability and verbal facility in ten leadership studies. Persons who are leaders are presumed to display better judgment and engage themselves in social activities. The study of the lives of successful leaders reveals that they possessed many of these traits.
Trait studies have not produced clear results because they do not consider the whole leadership environment. Personal traits are only a part of the whole environment. Though a certain trait exists, it will not become active until a certain situation calls for it. Thus, there is no sure connection between traits and leadership acts. Leadership is always related to a particular situation. A person may prove successful in one situation due to some traits, but may fail in another situation.
Another shortcoming of the trait theory is the failure of its supporters to formulate a common list of traits found in all successful leaders. For instance, good health is desirable in many leadership situations, but there are also successful leaders in other situations that do not enjoy good health. There are so many exceptions to any general statement about leadership traits. The theory also fails to mention the traits which are necessary to maintain leadership. Measurement of a trait usually occurs after a person becomes a leader and it is difficult to suggest the traits which are prerequisites of successful leader.
Behavioural Theory of Leadership
Success in leadership depends more on what the leader does than on his traits. The behavioural approach is based on the premise that effective leadership is the result of effective role behavior. There is a dynamic interaction between the leader and the followers, and leaders produce different styles while dealing with the workers.
Many behavioural scientists have attempted to identify appropriate behavioural patterns of leadership styles. Some of the important contributions in this regard include Ohio State Studies, Michigan University Studies and Managerial Grid of Blake and Mouton. The behavioural scientists don’t concentrate on the traits of leaders; rather they study the activities of leaders to identify their behavioural patterns.
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