1. Monarchy
The UK is a constitutional monarchy, with executive power
exercised on behalf of the monarch by the prime minister and other cabinet
ministers who head departments. The cabinet, including the prime minister, and
other ministers collectively make up Her Majesty's Government. These ministers
are elected from and are responsible to Parliament, the legislative body, which
is traditionally considered to be "supreme". The UK is one of the few
countries in the world today that does not have a codified constitution,
relying instead on traditional customs and separate pieces of constitutional
law - Acts of Parliament.1215 the nobles forced king John to accept Magna
Charta (The Great Charter) which was aimed to limit some powers of the king. In
1265 Simon de Montfort summoned the first parliament. Since then the so-called
British constitution has evolved as a result of countless Acts of Parliament.
The Bill of Rights (1689) was a major step towards constitutional monarchy and since
then the power of the parliament has grown and the power of the monarch has
weakened.head of state, theoretical and nominal source of executive, judicial
and legislative power in the UK is the British monarch, currently Queen
Elizabeth II. However, sovereignty in the UK no longer rests with the monarch,
since the English Bill of Rights in 1689, which established the principle of
Parliamentary sovereignty.British Sovereign possesses many hypothetical powers,
including the right to choose any British citizen to be her Prime Minister and
the right to call and dissolve Parliament whenever she wishes. However, in
accordance with the current uncodified constitution, the Prime Minister is the
leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, and Parliament is
dissolved at the time suggested by the PM. The monarch retains the ability to
deny giving a bill Royal Assent, although in modern times this becomes
increasingly more unlikely, as it would cause a constitutional crisis. Queen
Anne was the last monarch to exercise this power, which she did on 11 March
1708 with regard to a bill "for the settling of Militia in Scotland".
Other royal powers called royal prerogative, such as patronage to appoint
ministers and the ability to declare war, are exercised by the Prime Minister
and the Cabinet, with the formal consent of the Queen.the Sovereign has an
essentially ceremonial. However the monarch does continue to exercise three
essential rights: the right to be consulted, the right to advise and the right
to warn. As a consequence of these ideals, PMs hold weekly confidential
meetings with the monarch.the abolition of the monarchy has been suggested, the
popularity of the monarchy remains strong in the UK. Support for a British
republic usually fluctuates between 15% and 25% of the population, with roughly
10% undecided or indifferent. The current monarch is HM Queen Elizabeth II who
acceded to the throne in 1952 and was crowned in 1953
. Executive
The Government performs the Executive functions of the UK on
behalf of the Sovereign. The monarch appoints a PM, from the members of the
House of Commons who is most likely to be able to form a Government with the
support of the House. The PM then selects the other Ministers which make up the
Government and act as political heads of the various Government Departments.
About twenty of the most senior government ministers make up the Cabinet. The
ministers are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the PM. The
majority of ministers are members of the House of Commons, although there are
some representatives of the Lords. The PM may make changes in the size of their
cabinet and may create new ministries and make other changes. The PM informs
the queen of the general business of the Government, presides over the Cabinet
and is responsible for allocation of functions among ministers.Government of
the United Kingdom contains a number of ministries known as departments, e.g.
Ministry of Defence. These are politically led by a Government Minister who is
often a Secretary of State and member of the Cabinet. He or she may also be
supported by a number of junior Ministers.Government has the major share in
controlling and arranging the business of the House. As the initiator of
policy, it dictates what action it wishes the Parliament to take. The major
functions of the Cabinet are: the final determination of policies, the supreme
control of the government and the coordination of government departments.of the
Minister's decisions is carried out by a permanent politically neutral organization
known as the civil service. Its constitutional role is to support the
Government of the day regardless of which political party is in power.
"Whitehall" is often used as a synonym for the central core of the
Civil Service. This is because most Government Departments have headquarters in
and around the former Royal Palace of Whitehall.
. Legislative
Parliament is the national legislative power of the UK It is the ultimate legislative authority in the UK composed of the elected House of Commons and the unelected House of Lords, whose members are mostly appointed. The House of Commons is the more powerful of the two houses.Parliament Act 1911 fixed the life of a parliament at 5 years, although it may be dissolved. It can make, unmake or alter any law. The life of the Parliament is divided into sessions, each lasting for one year. Each session begins and ends most often in October and November.UK is divided into parliamentary constituencies of equal population, each of which elects a Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons. Of the 646 MPs there is currently only one who does not belong to a political party. In modern times, all Prime Ministers and Leaders of the Opposition have been drawn from the Commons, not the Lords.party usually has a majority in Parliament - the party that wins most seats at a general election, or which has support of the majority of the House of Commons, usually forms the government. The largest minority becomes the official opposition with its own leader and its own ‘Shadow’ cabinet whose members act as spokesmen on the subjects for which ministers have responsibility. The members of any other party support or oppose the Government according to their party policy.
The basic procedure for business in the Commons is a debate on a particular proposal, followed by a resolution which either accepts or rejects this proposal. Sometimes the resolution just expresses a viewpoint, but most often it is a matter of framing a new law or of approving (or not approving) government plans to raise taxes or spend money in certain ways. Occasionally, there is no need to take a vote, but there usually is, and at such times there is a 'division'. That is, MPs have to vote for or against a particular proposal. They do this by walking through one of two corridors at the side of the House - one (right) is for the 'Ayes' (those who agree with the proposal) and the other (left) is for the 'Noes' (those who disagree). All speeches in the House of commons are addressed to the Speaker and he calls upon the members to speak.a proposal for a new law starts its progress through the parliament, there will be much discussion. Most bills begin life in the House of Commons, where they go through a number of stages.reading: This is a formal announcement only, with no debatereading: The house debates the general principles of the bill and in most cases, takes a vote.stage: A committee of MPs examines the details of the bill and votes on amendments (changes) to parts of it.stage: The House considers die amendments.reading: The amended bill is debated as a whole.bill is sent to the House of Lords, where it goes through the same stages. (If the Lords make new amendments, these will be considered by the Commons.)both Houses have reached agreement, the bill receives the royal assent and becomes an Act of Parliament which can be applied as part of the law.
. Judiciary
The Lord Chancellor is the head of the judiciary in England
and Wales. He appoints judges and magistrates for criminal courts on behalf of
the Sovereign. However, the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 removes much of the
power in this role and gives it to others in the British government, mainly the
newly created post of Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs. Another
part of The Lord Chancellor's duties in the House of Lords have been replaced
by a dedicated "Lord/Lady Speaker", who acts as a permanent presiding
officer for the House of Lords.addition to the House of Commons, Scotland now
has its own parliament and Wales and Northern Ireland have assemblies.
. Elections and Parties
Historically, the UK had two major political parties, though currently three parties dominate the political landscape. Originally, the Conservatives and the Liberals dominated British politics, but the Liberal Party collapsed in the early 20th century and was largely replaced by the Labour Party. In the 1980s, the Liberals merged with the Social Democratic Party and have recently experienced a resurgence as the Liberal Democrats, enough so to again be considered a major party. In addition to the three major parties, many minor parties contest elections. Of these, few win seats in Parliament. In the most recent general election in 2005, the Labour Party won re-election.
The Conservative party (The National Union or Conservative and Unionist Associations) - 1867 - was organized on the basis or political groups of English landed aristocracy. The origins of the party go down to the 17th c, when it was called the Tory party.Conservative party has no official permanent programme. On the eve of general elections the party issues a pre-election manifesto whish states the main aspects of the home and foreign policies of the future Conservative government if the party wins the elections. The Conservative party has no official membership, no membership cards and party dues.Labour party was established in 1900 on the initiative of the trade unions and several socialist organizations. The main aim was to win working class representation in Parliament.party has no long political programme which would determine the final aims and means to achieve them. Instead the party endorses current political issues containing measures, which the future Labour government intends to implement if the party takes office as a result of a majority in the general elections.
Major issues in current British national politics, in descending order of voter concern are:
· Defence / Terrorism
· Race relations / immigration
· The NHS
· Education
· Law and order
· Pensions and benefits
· The state of the economy
· European integration and the single currency
· Housing and house prices
· Taxation
. Local Government
The UK is divided into a variety of different types of Local
Authorities, with different functions and responsibillities, which are further
subdivided in rural areas and some urban areas into parishes.Authorities are
responsible for such matters as administering education, public transport, and
the management of public spaces. Local authorities are often engaged in
community politics.have councils too and some are known as city or town
councils. These councils are either made up of elected parish councillors, or
in very small parishes, they use direct democracy.are two common systems of
local government in the UK: the old-style two-tier and newer single-tier
system. The older (and far more complex) two-tier system consists of District
Councils and County Councils. The District Councils are responsible for rubbish
collection, granting planning permission and council housing. County Councils
are responsible for education, social services, some public transport and other
local functions.Authorities, which are in use throughout the whole of Scotland,
Wales and Northern Ireland and in some areas in England, have a single tier of
local government, and combine District and County Council functions into one
body.
. European Union
The United Kingdom is a member of the European Union (EU). As
such, UK citizens elect Members of the European Parliament to represent them in
the European Parliament in Brussels and Strasbourg. The UK elects 78 MEPs.
Lecture 5.
National Economy
. The place of Britain in the world economy
has lost its former position of the leading industrial nation of the world. Britain today is fifth in size of its gross domestic product. As a result of World War I the country lost its monopoly in world trade. After World War II Britain lost its colonial empire and experienced an accelerated growth of monopolies. The export of capital abroad continues to be a major factor in its development the bulk of foreign investments is directed to the manufacturing industries of West European countries.monopolies in the country lay special emphasis on the development of such branches of the manufacturing and chemical industries which require high-skilled labour. Manufacturing and other production industries have undergone considerable reorganization to improve competitiveness. A number of industries such as aerospace, chemicals, oil, gas, electronics, and biotechnology have gained strength while textiles and some other traditional industries, including steel and shipbuilding, have contracted. As the development of the new industries does not compensate the decline of the traditional old industries there is a market growth of mass unemployment in the country. The British economy is primarily based on private enterprises. Part of public transport, industrial products, the coal mines, some steel, manufacturing plants are managed by the state. The atomic industry is also within the public sector. The national economy of GB is vitally dependent on foreign trade. About a third of the industrial products of the country is exported. Agriculture supplies nearly two-thirds of the country's food.structure of the economy has experienced serious changes: a decline in the relative importance of manufacturing and a rise in that of services. The general location of industry has changed little in recent years: four-fifths of industrial and agricultural production is concentrated in England.
2. Chief
industries
Chief industries in GB include:
- electricity (the first public supply was in 1881): steam power stations, gas turbines and oil engines ( 80%), nuclear plants (18%), hydro-electric plants manufacturing; - metals (iron, steel and non-ferrous industry);
- the mechanical engineering industry (non-electrical machinery, machine tools, industrial engines;
the electrical and electronic engineering industry (motors, telecommunications and broadcasting equipment, electronic equipment and systems);
- the motor vehicle (Ford, Chrysler, Rover, etc);
aerospace industry (civil and military aircraft, helicopters, aero-engines, guided weapons, space vehicles);
shipbuilding;
the chemical industry (chemicals, soap, detergents, dyestuffs, fertilizers, mineral oil refining);
the textile industry (cotton, wool); - leather and footwear industry;
the food, drink and tobacco industries;
the pottery industry;
paper and board manufacture.
. Agriculture
supplies nearly 2/3s of the country's food. The cool
temperature climate and the comparatively even distribution of rainfall
contribute favorably to the development of agriculture. Most of the lands is
owned by big landlords. Farmers rent the land and hire agricultural workers to
cultivate it. Part of the land belongs to banks, insurance companies.is
self-sufficient in milk, eggs, meat, potatoes, wheat. However she needs to
import butter, cheese, sugar, and some other agricultural products. Britain's
second source of food is the surrounding sea. The fishing industry provides
about 70% of British fish supplies Forestry. Woodland covers about 9% of the
total land area of the country. Britain imports 90% of its timber needs from
Scandinavia and ex-USSR countries.
4. Transport
and communication
Passenger and freight traffic is carried mainly by road.
Railways, pipelines and inland waterways are important in carrying certain
types of freight, particularly bulk goods. The railway and much of the bus
industry are state owned, but road haulage is almost entirely in the hands of
private enterprises. Today the railway network is 18000 km long, of which about
4000 km are electrified. There are underground railway services in three
British cities: London, Glasgow, and Liverpool. The most ambitious project is
the English Tunnel - a fixed railway link across the English Channel between
Britain and France. Today the inland waterways of Britain are experiencing a
considerable revival of interest in the use for recreation, freight-carrying
and for their contribution to the environment. They play an important part in
land drainage and water supply. Almost all of Britain's trade is handled at a
comparatively small number of ports. Most of these are old established and have
been involved in trade for several hundred years.most striking development in
the field of transport in recent years has been the growth of air traffic.
Airline services are operated by British Airways and by a number of independent
airlines. Their fleets contain modem types of equipment and international
services are operated to Europe, the Middle East, the Far East, Australia,
Africa and North America.is served by two major airports - Heathrow and
Gatwick. Of these, Heathrow is far more important and dominant among other
British airports.
5. Overseas
trade
Overseas trade presents a combination of export and import.
In exports manufactured goods include machinery, transport equipment,
chemicals, petroleum, in imports - different manufactured goods, food and crude
oil (petroleum).important part of overseas trade consists of what are called
'invisible exports'. These are not actual goods, but they represent services
paid for by foreigners. Tourism, organized by what is usually called the
tourist industry, is an important part of this group: it involves
accomodatating, catering and providing transport for the millions of foreigners
who spend money on holidays in Britain. Another part is represented by services
of the large insurance companies. Other invisible exports include the services
to foreigners of British bankers. Engineers, scientists and technical experts
of many kinds
6. Regional
differences
Regional differences in the country's economy are essential
despite its small territory. Historically England proper is divided into the
following economic regions: the South Industrial and Agricultural region,
Central England, or the Midlands, Lancashire, Yorkshire and North England.
[Wales, Scotland and N. Ireland are also regarded as independent economic
regions of the UK. Hence, the whole country consists of eight economic
regions.of the main problems to emerge in Britain during the 20th
century has been the imbalance of economic activity between individual regions.
This has been the result of the decline of the traditional industrial
structure, based largely on the coalfields and its replacement by a new
structure more closely related to accessibility and transport network. Hence,
such regions as South England and the Midlands are in a more favorable position
than Wales, Scotland and N. Ireland.
Lecture 6. Mass Media
Television in the UK is made up of two chartered public broadcasting companies, the BBC and Channel 4 and two franchised commercial television companies, (ITV and Five). There are five major free-to-air analogue networks: BBC One, BBC Two, ITV1, Channel 4 and Five.BBC is funded by public money from a television licence fee gathered from all UK households with a television set. This fee is legally compulsory and failure to pay it is punishable by prosecution, resulting in a fine or imprisonment. There are exceptions to paying, for homes with a pensioner (person over 65 years old). It is cheaper for those with a black & white TV or eyesight that is impaired. It is currently set at £135.50 , but is not set in stone. The fee chargeable is limited by the government and regulatory authorities. The BBC provides two analogue networks, BBC One (consisting of a network of local BBC stations) and BBC Two.4 is similarly chartered to the BBC, with a remit to provide public service broadcasting and schools programmes, however it runs commercial advertisements to provide a revenue stream.commercial operators rely on advertising for their revenue, and are run as commercial ventures, in contrast to the public service operators. (ITV1, Five)broadcasters provide additional networks on the digital television service, and all of these channels can be accessed via a cable or satellite provider, such as Virgin Media or BSkyB.the UK the BBC has eight digital networks:
· BBC One (also available on analogue)
· BBC Two (also available on analogue)
· BBC Three
· BBC Four
· BBC Parliament
· BBC News 24
· CBBC Channel
· CBeebies
ITV has six digital networks:
· ITV1 (also available on analogue)
· ITV2
· ITV3
· ITV4
· ITV Play
· CITV Channel
Channel 4 has four digital networks:
· Channel 4 (also available on analogue)
· E4
· More4
· Film Four
Five has three digital networks:
· Five (also available on analogue)
· Five Life
· Five US
% of households in 2005/06 received some digital television service.
There are many hundreds of radio stations in the UK, the most prominent of which are the national networks operated by the BBC. Recent advances in digital radio technology have enabled the launch of several new stations by the Corporation.
· BBC Radio 1 broadcasts pop music output on FM and digital radio, with live music throughout the year
· BBC Radio 2 is the UK's most listened to radio station, featuring presenters Terry Wogan and Jonathan Ross, with a mix of music from the last thirty years
· BBC Radio 3 is a serious classical station, broadcasting high-quality concerts and performances. At night, it transmits a wide range of jazz and world music
· BBC Radio 4 is a current affairs and speech station, with news, debate and radio drama. It broadcasts the daily radio soap The Archers, as well as flagship news programme Today
· BBC Radio Five Live broadcasts live news and sports commentary with phone-in debates and studio guests
· BBC 6 Music transmits predominantly alternative rock, with many live sessions. Phill Jupitus presents the morning show
· BBC 1Xtra broadcasts rap, RnB and drum'n'bass
· BBC 7 uses the BBC's large archive of speech programming to broadcast classic comedy and drama, mainly originally from Radio 4
The BBC also provide 40 local radio services, mainly
broadcasting a mix of local news and music aimed at an older audience.available
nationally are three national commercial channels, namely Virgin Radio, Classic
FM and talkSPORT. As with the BBC, digital radio has brought about many
changes, including the roll-out of local stations (particularly those based in
London) to a national audience. Examples of this are Kiss 100 and Xfm.
Commercial radio licences are awarded by government body Ofcom, which advertises
a licence for a specific area and holds a so-called beauty contest to determine
which station will be granted permission to broadcast in that area. Stations
submit detailed application documents containing their proposed format and the
outcome of research to determine the demand for their particular style of
broadcast.local commercial stations in the UK broadcast to a city or group of
towns within a radius of 20-50 miles, with a second tier of regional stations
covering larger areas such as North West England. The predominant format is pop
music, but many other tastes are also catered for, particularly in London and
the larger cities, and on digital radio.than operating as independent entities,
many local radio stations are owned by large radio groups which broadcast a
similar format to many areas. The largest operator of radio stations is GCap
Media with over 40 local commercial stations, mainly of the smaller variety. It
also owns Classic FM and London's most popular commercial station, Capital FM.
Other owners are Emap, holding mainly large city stations in the North of
England and Chrysalis Group, owner of the major Heart and Galaxy brands.of
these stations, including all the BBC radio, are also available via digital
television services.
2. Print
the beginning of the 17th century the right to print was strictly controlled in England. This was probably the reason why the first newspaper in English language was printed in Amsterdam by Joris Veseler around 1620.Civil War escalated the demand for news. News-pamphlets or books reported the war, often supporting one side or the other. Following the Restoration there arose a number of publications, including the London Gazette (first published on November 16, 1665 as the Oxford Gazette), the first official journal of record and the newspaper of the Crown.were 12 London newspapers and 24 provincial papers by the 1720s (the Daily Courant was the 1st London newspaper).the early 19th century there were 52 London papers and over 100 other titles. The Daily Universal Register began life in 1785 and was later to become known as The Times from 1788. This was the most significant newspaper of the first half of the 19th century, but from around 1860 there were a number of more strongly competitive titles, each differentiated by its political biases and interests.Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by a group of non-conformist businessmen. Its most famous editor, Charles Prestwich Scott, made the Manchester Guardian into a world-famous newspaper in the 1890s. It is now called The Guardian.the same time there was the establishment of more specialized periodicals and the first cheap newspaper in the Daily Telegraph and Courier (1855), later to be known simply as the Daily Telegraph.1860 until around 1910 is considered a 'golden age' of newspaper publication, with technical advances in printing and communication combined with a professionalization of journalism and the prominence of new owners. Newspapers became more partisan and there was the rise of new or yellow journalism. Socialist and labour newspapers also proliferated and in 1912 the Daily Herald was launched as the first daily newspaper of the trade union and labour movement.World War I the newspaper industry took on an appearance similar to today's. The post-war period was marked by the emergence of tabloid newspapers (or red tops.are now going online as well with their own websites and with the ever increasing pressure to reduce waste in the UK and paper and ink cost rising it will not be far off when all newspapers will become electronic only using the internet and e-paper as ways to publish. This rise in costs made one UK media group to publish the UK first online only recognized local newspaper. It was the Southport Reporter and it went online fully in 2000 as an online only publication from day one. This type of local newspaper could spell the move for all local newspapers in the UK to publish only on the internet.newspapers still in circulationby year the paper was established:
· The News Letter (1737)