All may be used as subject, predicative, object, and attribute.
Indefinite pronouns point out some person or thing indefinitely. The indefinite pronouns are some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, something, anything, one.
The pronouns somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, ояе have two cases: the common case and the genitive case.
1. Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences while any is used in negative and interrogative sentences and in conditional clauses.
2. The indefinite pronouns some and any may be used as subject, object and attribute.
3. The indefinite-personal pronoun one is often used in the sense of any person or every person.
New York presents so many temptations for one to run into extravagance. (O. Henry)
The verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in realizing predication - connection between the situation given in the utterance and reality. That is why the verb is of primary informative significance in the utterance. Besides, the verb possesses a lot of grammatical categories. Furthermore, within the class of verbs various subclass divisions based on different principles of classification can be found.
Semantic features of the verb. The verb possesses the grammatical meaning of verbiality - the ability to denote a process developing in time. This meaning is inherent not only in the verbs denoting processes, but also in those denoting states, forms of existence, evaluations, etc.
Morphological features of the verb. The verb possesses the following grammatical categories: tense, aspect, voice, mood, person, number, finitude and temporal correlation. The common categories for finite and non-finite forms are voice, aspect, temporal correlation and finitude. The grammatical categories of the English verb find their expression in both synthetical and analytical forms.
Syntactic features. The most universal syntactic feature of verbs is their ability to be modified by adverbs. The second important syntactic criterion is the ability of the verb to perform the syntactic function of the predicate. However, this criterion is not absolute because only finite forms can perform this function while non-finite forms can be used in any function but predicate.
Morphological classifications
According to their stem-types all verbs fall into: simple (to play), sound- replacive (food - to feed, blood - to bleed), stress-replacive (‘insult - to in’sult, ‘record - to re’cord), expanded - built with the help of suffixes and prefixes (oversleep, undergo), composite - correspond to composite nouns (to blackmail), phrasal (to have a smoke, to take a look).
According to the way of forming past tenses and Participle II verbs can be regular and irregular.
Lexical-morphological classification is based on the implicit grammatical meanings of the verb.
According to the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity verbs fall into transitive and intransitive.
According to the implicit grammatical meaning of stativeness/non- stativeness verbs fall into stative and dynamic.
Dynamic verbs include:
activity verbs: beg, call, drink;
process verbs: grow, widen, narrow;
verbs of bodily sensations: hurt, itch;
transitional event verbs: die, fall;
momentary: hit, kick, nod.
Stative verbs include:
verbs of inert perception and cognition: adore, hate, love;
relational verbs: consist, cost, have, owe.
According to the implicit grammatical meaning of terminativeness/non- terminativeness verbs fall into terminative and durative. This classification is closely connected with the categories of aspect and temporal correlation.
B. Lexical-morphological classification is based on the implicit grammatical meanings of the verb. According to the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity verbs fall into transitive and intransitive. According to the implicit grammatical meaning of stativeness/nonstativeness verbs fall into stative and dynamic. According to the implicit grammatical meaning of terminativeness/non-terminativeness verbs fall into terminative and durative. This classification is closely connected with the categories of Aspect and Phase.
C. Syntactic classifications. According to the nature of predication (primary and secondary) all verbs fall into finite and non-finite. According to syntagmatic properties (valency) verbs can be of obligatory and optional valency, and thus they may have some directionality or be devoid of any directionality. In this way, verbs fall into the verbs of directed (to see, to take, etc.) and non-directed action (to arrive, to drizzle, etc.).
D. Functional classification. According to their functional significance verbs can be notional (with the full lexical meaning), semi-notional (modal verbs, link-verbs), auxiliaries
F. Semantic division. A terminative verb denotes an action which has a limit in its development. A non- terminative verb denotes an action which doesn't admit of any limit in its development. The verb can be terminative just by the meaning of the root (to stop), phrasal verbs are terminative (almost all of them). Sometimes the terminative character of the verb is clear from the context: He is writing a letter. - He writes well.
Non-terminative verbs usually denote perception of senses, mental perception, emotions, position in space and the like.
The term/non-term character of the verb is closely connected with the functioning of the certain grammatical forms.
Traditional opposition: common aspect (the unmarked member of the opposition and continuous aspect (the marked member) call - ------ + be calling
2) G.O. Curme distinguishes 4 aspects:
Durative aspect represents the action as continuing. He is eating.
Point-action aspects call attention, not to an act as a whole, but to only one point, either the beginning or the final point. The ingressive type is often expressed by begin, start, in connection with an infinitive or get, grow, fall, turn, become, run, set, take in connection with an adjective, participle, noun or a prepositional phrase. He awoke early. He often gets sick. Effective type of point-action aspect directs the attention to the final point of the activity or state. The two friends fell out. He knocked him out.
Terminative aspect indicates an action as a whole. He handed me a book. I overlooked this item in my calculation.
Iterative aspect indicates an indefinitely prolonged succession. He pooh-poohs at everything. He threw his head back and haw-hawed
1) Traditional opposition: active voice (the unmarked member of the opposition) and passive voice (the marked member) invites - ------+ is invited
2) At various times the following three voices have been suggested in addition:
The reflexive, as in He dressed himself.
The reciprocal, as in They greeted each other, and
The middle voice, as in The door opened.
Verb, the category of mood. Other types of expressing modality.
The theory of a phrase.
Transformational Generative Grammar.
Syntactic relations in a phrase, sentence, text.
Sentence in Transformational Generative Grammar.
Simple sentence. Structural approach.
Sentence in semantics.
Sentence in pragmatics.
Actual division of the sentence.
Composite sentence: compound and complex sentences.
Text Grammar.