The radio-electronic industry takes places on country territory as a whole a little in regular more intervals, than other large branches mechanical engineering. Chicago, New York, Boston concern the major centres of the radio-electronic industry of the countryThe largest enterprise for release of the computers the firm “International business machines» is located in Pockipsy (New York), the telephone and cable equipment of firm «Western the electrician» - in Chicago.chemical industry is along with mechanical engineering is one of leading industries of the USA. On the rates of growth the chemical industry considerably advances a manufacturing industry as a whole, conceding only to radio electronics. Manufacture of chemical production in the USA doubles for each 10-12 years. Technical progress promoted sharp increase in demand at synthetic chemicals with in advance set properties, first of all on polymeric materials (chemical fibres, plastic, synthetic pitches) which mostly are synthesised on the basis of petrochemical raw materials. Value of some technical gases (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and its connections, helium), processes used for an intensification in metallurgy and chemical technology, in the form of components rocket fuel, for space research etc. has sharply amplified for last years
The South enterprises make over half of all technical chemicals developed in the country (that is the chemical semiproducts arriving for the further processing within the same branch or used in other industries, in building and on transport), 60 % of polymeric materials, over 50 % of fertilizers and pesticides etc., that is rather cheap and large-tonnage products.
The north where the overwhelming part of the population of the USA is concentrated and the enterprises of a manufacturing industry of the country, remains the basic area of manufacture and consumption of chemicals in the USA. However about 60 % made in the north of chemical production (in cost expression) make ready to the use low-tonnage and expensive chemicals: medicines, soap and washing-up liquids, perfumery-cosmetic products, dyes. The most part of specified production is consumed within area, however export expensive and low-tonnage chemicals in southern and the West defines North specialisation in a territorial division of labour in the chemical industry of the country. Inorganic in the north inorganic and organic technical chemicals do not satisfy local demand, and their considerable part is imported from southern states. The major centres of the chemical industry of area are New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Saint Louis, Indianapolis. About 20 % of all tyres it is developed in the USA in the largest centre of a rubber industry - the city of Akron (Ohio).
The nuclear industry having huge military value is closely connected with the chemical industry. In a complex of the enterprises of this branch the major place is occupied with factories on manufacture nuclear combustible (uranium 235, трития, plutonium), constructed during 2 world wars by the government of the USA, and then transferred in operation to private concerns. The centres of manufacture of split materials are Oak Ridge (Tennessee), Paducah (Kentucky), Savanna (South Carolina), Portsmouth (Ohio), Hanford (Washington).important place in a national economy is occupied with light industry branches among which are allocated textile both especially sewing and knitted though rates of growth of these branches are low also their relative role in industrial production decreases. In the textile industry the structure of release of fabrics after 2 world war has considerably changed - the share of the fabrics developed on the basis of artificial and synthetic fibres, and also the combined fabrics has grown, having made almost half of all production of branch. At the same time manufacture of cotton fabrics was reduced to a half , and manufacture woollen - almost in 8 times. It is necessary to underline, that manufacture of synthetic and artificial fibres is carried out at the specialised factories included by the American statistics in structure of the chemical industry, and release of fabrics on their basis is actually textile manufacture.of the textile industry of the USA from the beginning of 20 centuries has undergone considerable changes. In a current of several decades the branch has in essence moved from traditional textile area - New England - to the South Atlantic states, where a cheap labour and closeness to a cotton belt of the country. After 2 world war in this area and the next Southeast centre the largest enterprises of the USA for release of synthetic fibres have been constructed practically: kapron, nylon,dacron, fibers. To the share of southern states belongs 80 % of release of cotton fabrics and fabrics on the basis of chemical fibres. The largest centres of the South are Greensboro - Winston-Salem - High Point (Northern Carolina), Charlotte (Northern Carolina), Greenville (South Carolina), Columbus (Georgia). clothing industry shift on the South also is swept up. To the share of the enterprises of the South (mainly small factories which are letting out inexpensive men's wear) belongs over 40 % conditionally-net production to branch. However value of the old centres of a clothing industry in the Northeast USA, despite absolute and relative decrease in output, is still great enough. One of national legislators of a fashion Los Angeles which promotion is connected with manufacture of a female dress under Hollywood "film standards" became the considerable centre last years.
The big development has received in the USA the flavoring
industry. The branch share makes 12 %. The major branches of the
food-processing industry of the USA concern meat, dairy, manufacture alcoholic
and soft drinks, canning and flour-grinding. In connection with a rise in prices
for articles of food in the USA the big attention is given to the manufacture
of various sorts of substitutes of natural products, the aromatic substances
added in a foodstuff. Manufacture of the frozen foodstuff (including snack,
national dishes, dessert products, creams etc.) and various canned food
develops. Food-processing industry placing on country territory in a whole
differs relative uniformity. Large cities, as a rule, are the leading centres
of branch. However areas of concentration of the enterprises of the
flour-grinding industry is in the Northwest centre and along coast of Great
Lakes (the leading centres are allocated: Minneapolis - Saint Paul, Kansas
City, Буффало); the meat industry - is
in Chicago, Kansas City and Omaha (Nebraska); dairy and cheese-making -is in
states Wisconsin and Minnesota; canning - is in California. The largest centres
of manufacture of confectionery products are New York and Chicago; whisky -
Louisville (Kentucky); Coca-Colas - Atlanta; beer - Saint Louis and Milwaukee.
Manufacture of cigarettes basically is concentrated within Piedmont and
Kentucky. The basic centres are - Greensboro - Winston-Salem - High Point and
Durham in Northern Carolina, Richmond in Virginia and Louisville in Kentucky.
Release of cigars from the American tobacco concentrates in the Northeast (the
basic centre - Philadelphia).
The service sector- is the largest sector
of economy of the USA. In 1997 it has given 4,43 bln. dollars, or 54 % of gross
national product, and 4/5 workplaces in the country.The service sector includes
set of various branches and trades. A complex of business, professional and
personal services - the greatest and most diverse group - includes educational
and medical services, social service, hotel business, the advertising industry,
management, agencies in public relations, and also the numerous enterprises of the
household services given to corporations or separate citizens: laundries,
dry-cleaners, the car-care centre, etc. In 1996 all this service complex has
given more than 1 bln. dollars, i.e. approximately 15 % of gross national
product, and in it 45 % of all labour of sector of services have been occupied.
The contribution of financial and insurance institutes and real estate agencies
too has made 15 % of gross national product, however in them 8 % of workers of
sphere of services are occupied only. This group includes banks,
loan-and-savings associations, the credit unions and other financial
organisations, commodity and stock exchanges, agencies on operations with the
real estate. Other largest sector of sphere of services - the enterprises of
wholesale and retail trade, it includes restaurants and bars, firms of
wholesale trade, shops, and companies dealing with vehicles sale. In 1996
almost 30 % of workers of sphere of service have been occupied in trade, and to
their share it was approximately 1/6 costs of all made services. Workers of
public sector have made 11 % of all services occupied in the sector and have
made 1/8 gross national products. At last, to a share of the enterprises of
transport, communication and municipal services in 1996 belonged approximately
9 % of cost of services and approximately 6,5 % of all occupied in service
sphere. Automobile, railway and air transport, telecommunication companies,
radio-and TV-broadcasting corporations, and also the public service enterprises
arehere.of growth of employment in sphere of services have surpassed all other
branches and during the period with 1979 on 1995 have made 2,3 % a year that
has led to creation in the country of 24 million new workplaces. Rates of
growth of employment as a whole on the country for the same period have made
only 1,4 % a year. As a result employment has increased in sphere of services
from 70 % almost to 80 % from the general number of the working. As the wages
(together with privileges) make workers of sphere of services approximately 75
% of wages on manufacture, labour outflow in the industry of service from 1979
on 1995 has led to the general decrease in a payment approximately on 10 %.
Almost 21mln. people or about 17 % of all population works in the agriculture of USA. Nearly 3 millions independent farms deliver feed products to the American consumers. The area of an average farm in the USA makes about 400 acres. In 1984 there were more than 2.3 million farms in the country. However, the very large farms -those with 1000 acres and more account for more than 40% of farm acreage. largest manufacturers of grains making up 2,3% of total of farms, produce about 50 % of wheat in the country. Similarly, the largest 2 % of the manufacturers of chickens - broilers own 70 % of market sales.
Number of firms producing selected products in the USA. 1980es.Numbers of firms producing product44607593770411445bean 511229179141nuts 23046products 1972691354309
There is therefore some concentrations of agricultural
production in hands of the largest manufacturers in the USA. But even largest
agricultural manufacturers accept the established prices for production. For
example, 2 % of the manufacturers of grain, that make up 50 % of grain
production in the USA, are represented by 27000 independent firms. The new
firms can also penetrate into the majority of agricultural branches with
relative ease. There are special branches - exceptions. For example, there have
been state regulation that have limited for many years the number of tobacco
producers. However, even domestic manufacturer, who are protected against entry
must compete for sales to the foreign manufacturers in the export markets.tax
regulation plays important roll in encouraging of farm development in USA.
Since 1988 the tax rates on profit in an agriculture have been established at a
rate of 15 and 28% whereas earlier they ranged from 11 up to 50 % with the
intermediate rates. Farms with the income up to 50000 dollars pay tax at the 15
% rate, and every next 25000 dollars at - 28% rate. Since 1989 the size of the
tax-free profit has increased up to 2000, and since 1990 - up to 5000 dollars.
Calculation of surtax in USA agroindustrial complex has a number of
peculiarities, each of which can represent a tax privilege. The USA tax laws
gives the farmers the right to subtract the costs connected with some works in
agriculture and cattle breeding from the tax paid. Work on soil preservation,
water resources protection, soil preparation for farming are of thus kind. The
tax discount works for the incomes and losses suffered by the farmers in
connection with the sale of cattle or forages. These losses are subtracted from
the farmer's charges and the more favorable taxation mode is used for profit,
than for income taxation. The farmers, who are engaged in cattle feeding use a
tax privilege as a delay of income getting, that is all expenses are estimated
per one year, and all incomes on his(its) realization the next year. Besides
the farmers have the right to apply methods of accelerated amortization of
agricultural machines and equipment on higher rates. It allows them to
considerably reduce the sizes of the taxed income, that is to pay the taxes on
the lower rates. As a result, the more machines, equipment, the farmer gets,
the less taxes he pays this year and in the following period of amortization.
The farmers are given alternative to use new amortization rules to reduce the
taxed income or to make allocation by equal shares for 3-45 years depending on
the kind of property.tax rules for corporations limit the sizes of the allowed
allocation from the taxed income connected with expenses for fodder, seeds and
fertilizer. The farmer corporation can receive the right for discounts only
after actual complete consumption of materials.special tax privileges are given
to farmer cooperative societies. Thus, fruit growing cooperative societies?
marketing, and also those purchasing farm machines are released from surtax payment.of
major functions of tax privileges in agriculture is to stimulate scientific and
technical development, accelerate realization of technical novelties, which, as
a rule, require large additional capital investments. To stimulate investments
of the farmer capital in technical innovations the special conditions of the
taxation are provided these tax laws:
• Establishment of the tax
discounts on the investments gain;
• Budget compensation for tax payments on investment gain;
• Prolongation of tax payments and capital investment gain for the period of
end of investment process completion.
Farmer has the right to take advantage of one of the favorable taxation terms, if he introduce innovations, which are found in the state or regional agrarian programs. The farmers participating in the state agrarian programs, have the right to detain tax payment capital investments gain as long as the investment process is completed. The tax volume decreases by inflation, and the sum of the tax is distributed per years in regular intervals.state tax regulation in the USA enables the farmers of the advanced countries to change the size tax volume at the expense of use of various tax privileges and discounts. The numerous tax privileges reduce fiscal functions of taxation system in agrarian sector to a minimum level.main role in belongs to the agrarian legislation. The acts determine the basic forms and methods of state influence on an agriculture. In recent years the role of budget assignments for support of the prices on agricultural production and incomes of the farmers, as well for regulation of market structure of agricultural production and foodstuffs has increased. Organization of Economic Assistance to Development (ОEAD) estimates that the USA farmers received 22 milliards dollars for financial support.feature of financing of USA economy, is that the means from the federal budget are primary allocated for the target programs having national importance. So, two programs work in agroindustrial complex at the federal level: "Stabilization of the Incomes" and "science and scientific service". Besides more than 10 interbranch target programs of national importance providing interests of an agriculture and farmers work at a federal level. There are soil conservation and land withdrawal program, food help to needy population, marketing and inspection, social development of rural areas. The budget means distributed according with this programs are summarized and allocated to the branch federal budget of the USA agriculture. Its basic part (more than 80 %) is supervised by the US Ministry of an agriculture through good-credit corporation (GCC) and other financial-credit bodies. The rest of 20 % of means are distributed through state and local management bodies. Of all US budget charges about 60 % is necessary for realization of farmer income stabilization program and social - charitable support of needy farmers, almost 10 % is distributed for the programs development village at the state and regional level, about 5 % - for scientific researches and scientific service, 25 % - for social and native-protective purposes. Thus, 3/4 of budget assignments allocated to US agriculture are spent for farm production regulation and 1/4 for social purposes.system of federal budget distribution allow to regulate farm production, through the prices, loans, credits and grants. The target program "Stabilization Of the Incomes " is subdivided into 3 large programs: " Prices and Incomes Support Crop Insurance . The Farm Credit the direct gratuitous payments from the federal budget are very important and have great influence over the farmers. The grants are powerful economic stimulus of involving farmers in realization of the state programs of farm regulation. The farmers, who carry out the taken obligations on realization of the state agrarian programs have right to get them, as well as loans. The grants use stimulates farmers to intensify farm production in case the sowing areas are reduced permanent income even due to the system of compensatory payments from the federal budget farmers are ensured in permanent income even if the situation is not favorable.US agricultural policies provide minimal and steady prices for agricultural products. The price support frequently results in huge surpluses of agricultural products, which authorities are compelled to buy and to keep prices from sharp fall. Agricultural price support, alongside with other policies inducing farmers to keep their land idle have also brought contributed in the prices paid by the American consumers to subsidize the farmers.American government agricultural policy supporting crop prices and farmers incomes has resulted in federal costs of more than 85 billions dollars in 1981-86 years. There is a complex of price support policies used by the government to benefit agricultural firms. The simplest of the programs is a price floor similar to the one discussed above for wages. Such a program has been used for many years to bolster the incomes of dairy farmers However, the impact of this type of price floor is somewhat different from the minimum wage program discussed above. In the case of an effective minimum wage the surplus of workers seeking work are not employed. However, in the case of an effective price floor established for dairy products such as milk, the government actually purchases the surplus and in that way uses taxpayers money to help increase the income of mill: producers When the price floor is above the equilibrium price of milk consumers also foot the bill to assist dairy farmers by paying higher prices for milk. Because milk is not storable for long periods, the surplus milk is usually converted to powder, cheese, or butter before being stored. In recent years government purchases of surplus milk have amounted to about 10% of total production. During the early 1980s the federal government spent over $2 billion annually to purchase surplus milk. To help reduce the program in 1986 the government purchased dairy herds of farmers who agreed to stay out of the milk business for 5 years The dairy cows purchased through this program were then slaughtered The price support floors for milk were also reduced in 1986. However, the new program is not expected to eliminate the surplus.federal government also intervenes in the market for other agricultural commodities in various ways. The method most recently used to support the incomes of grain producers has been the imposition of target prices for crops. Target prices are price floors 10 sellers However unlike the price supports discussed above for milk target prices do not directly increase the market price paid by buyers. Instead, the entire quantity supplied by farmers at the target price is dumped on the market. The resulting price depends on the demand for the commodity. Farmers are then subsidized by the government through a payment for each bushel sold equal to the difference between the target price and the price paid by buyers .the beginning of each crop year the US Department of Agriculture announces the target prices for various crops and the eligibility requirements to participate the target price program. For example, in 1987 the target price for wheat was $4,38 per bushel Typically, farmers are required to hold a certain percentage of the their acreage land to be eligible for the target price. In 1987 farmers had to hold idle 25% of their land to gain the right to the target price.government does not buy grain surplus, on the target price instead all produced graine amount is offered for sale at the market.are clearly better under the target price program than they would be under a price floor of $4.38 per bushel. In fact, one of the justifications of the target price program in recent years has been that it does contribute to lower prices for U.S. crops, thereby increasing the ability of U.S. producers to compete with foreign competitors in international commodity markets. However, because of the acreage restrictions that go along with the program, prices can be higher than would be the case.farmers in this way therefore transfers income from taxpayers in general to farmers, but it does not necessarily result in lower commodity prices to consumers compared to those that would prevail in a free market The United States Is not the only nation that subsidizes farmers in ways that increase quantities supplied. Other nations have their own subsidy programs that tend to raise prices received by their farmers above the equilibrium level. The result of these programs has in recent years has been a glut of grain on international markets, sharply reducing prices. Farmers in nations without subsidy programs have suffered. For example, in Canada where farm subsidies are below those in other nations, many farmers have been forced out of business.are also other examples. The policy of encouragement of the domestic manufacturers of sugar in the advanced countries damages to a number of the developing countries, whose climate is best suited for sugar production. The surplus of sugar in the advanced countries because of price thresholds on surpluses causes the sugar exports from these countries. And it means, that the developing countries should compete with them at the world markets. Thus policy of support of sugar manufacturers in the advanced countries results in decrease of the producers incomes in the less advanced countries. The same situation develops with other branches of agroindustrial manufacture. The support of the prices on rice in the USA damages to the rice producers in Thailand. The creation of favorable conditions for the manufacturers of cotton in USA results in decrease of the incomes in Egypt and Mexico. experience of state regulation of agroindustrial manufacture in market economy of USA shows, that the state is an effective mechanism of modern economy. The activity of the state depends on the development of the market, its infrastructure, degree of involving of national economy in the international relations. An effective utilization in USA of such tools as: the competition, tax system, budget and credit system, frequently even to the detriment of other countries - promotes development of market economy in the country, induces development of domestic branches of the national economy and at the end increases competitiveness of production of domestic manufacture in the world market.
Export import industry economy USA
The American economy is described as a free enterprise
system, which allows private business the freedom to operate for profit with
minimum government regulation. The theoretical foundation of the American
economic system was provided by Adam Smith whose economic ideas of so called
"laissez-faireї" or free competition
influenced the development of capitalism. From his standpoint the more people
manufacture and trade the greater the competition. Competition benefits society
by allowing the consumer to search for the best available product at the lowest
price. Thus market forces, which Smith termed the invisible hands, control the
allocation of goods while each participant in the market is seeking for his own
self-interest. Throughout the nineteen century market operated with a minimum
government regulations. Since the 1930-s American capitalism has undergone a
radical change. Although private enterprises flourishes, government regulation
now exists in many areas of business ranging from product safety to labor
conditions. Political conservatives complain of too much government regulation
while the liberals are out for the enhance of government role in business and
economy. The country’s reliance on private initiative and enterprise has
produced imdivssive growth. It is the most affluent nation in the world.60% of
all families and individuals are in the middle-income or high-income rank.is
common knowledge that the USA is the leading economic power. This fact can be
confirmed. The status of the dollar as the world’s chief international
currency. The dollar until recently(until the time of emission of the EURO) is
used for most international trading. But the divsent times dollar shares with
the EURO its status of the international currency which points to the declining
of the US economic power. However high volatility of the American dollar
continue to create instability on the world-wide trade markets. The balance of
trade. As I said before The USA has experienced massive trade deficit. This
trade imbalance has promoted growth in the rest of the world; other countries
were able to sell more of their products to the United States, and these sales
have provided them with export benefits. While the U. S. trade deficit has
benefited foreign economies, it has created severe distress for the American
economy. a leading producer and exporter of technology the USA contributes to
the worldwide economic growth. It exports more machinery and invests more money
in technological research than any other country. Foreign investment. American
businesses and industries operate all over the world. American investment
boosts of other economies by providing them employment, technology and new
products.
THE LIST OF LITERATURE
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.http://www.ypc.am/Old/russian/collegues/pressclub/01.1998/16-20.html Дата доступа: 20.04.2014
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5. http:// EncyclopediaoftheNations » Americas » UnitedStates Дата доступа 20.04.2014
6.http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki Дата доступа 20.04.2014
.http://www.ref.by/refs/105/1827/1.html. Дата доступа 20.04.2014
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10.Encyclopedia of the Nations http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Europe/TheUSA-ECONOMIC-SECTORS.html Дата доступа: 20.04.2014
.trading economics http://www.tradingeconomics.com/us/imports Дата доступа: 20.04.2014
12.http://www.tophorticulture.com/ Дата доступа: 20.04.2014