But with one of, each of, every one of and a plural noun, we use a singular verb.
e.g. Each of the boys in the class has his own notebook.
7. With a/the majority of, a number of, a lot of, a variety of, plenty of, all (of), some (of), a couple of, a group of, a percentage of and a plural noun we use a plural verb.
But if we say the number of, the variety of, the percentage of we use a singular verb.
e.g. A number of refugees have been turned back at the border
The number of books in the library has risen to over 5 million.
8. With any of, none of, the majority of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), some (of) and an uncountable noun, we use a singular verb.
e.g. All the furniture was destroyed in the fire.
9. With each and every and a singular noun we use a singular verb.
e.g. Every room has its own bathroom
But: The boys have each drawn a picture.
10. With everyone, everybody, everything (and similar words beginning any-, some- and no-) we use a singular verb.
e.g. Practically everyone thinks that Judith should be given the job.
11.When a subject has two or more items joined by and, we use a plural verb:
e.g. Jean and David are moving back to Australia.
However phrases connected by and can also be followed by singular verbs if we think of them as making up a single item.
e.g. Meat pie and peas is Tom’s favourite at the moment (or meat pie and peas are…)
12. When a subject is made up of two or more items joined by: either …. or or neither ….. nor, not only … but (also), we use a singular verb if the last item is singular (although a plural verb is sometimes used in informal English), and a plural verb if it is plural.
e.g. Either the station or the cinema is a good place to meet (are).
Neither the President nor his representatives are to attend the meeting.
If the last item is singular and the previous item plural, we can use a singular or plural verb.
e.g. Either the teachers or the principal is (are) to blame for the accidents.
13. When two subjects in the singular are connected by the conjunctions as well as, together with the predicate is in the singular.
e.g. Activity, as well as cell structure, is an essential condition of life.
If the subjects are of different person or number, the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first.
e.g. The Volga, as well as its affluents , is very picturesque.
14. If the subject is expressed by the word-group many a.., the predicate is in the singular.
e.g. The banks of the Avon are beautiful in these parts. Many an artist comes there.
15. With expressions of duration, distance or money meaning “a whole amount” we use a singular verb.
e.g. Two weeks isn’t long to wait.
Ten miles is a long way to ride.
Two thousand pounds is to much to spend on this house.
16. When the predicate-verb precedes a number of subjects, it is often in the singular especially if the sentence begins with here or there.
e.g. And here was a man, was experience and culture
If the subjects are of different. number, the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first.
e.g. There was much traffic at night and many mules on the roads.
17. If the subject is expressed by an interrogative pronoun (who, what), the predicate is usually in the singular.
e.g. Who is to apply to her for permission?
If the question refers to more than one person, the predicate may be used in the plural.
e.g. Who are his parents?
18. Plural names of countries and organizations have a singular verb.
e.g. The USA is smaller than Canada.
19. Compound nouns joined by more than one and a singular noun have a singular verb.
e.g. More than one person disagrees.
20. After one of and a plural noun we use a singular verb
e.g. One of your children has lost a shoe.
When it is followed by a relative clause we use a plural verb.
e.g. She is one of the women who have climbed Everest.
One of the things that really make me angry is people who don’t answer letters.
( In informal English singular verb is possible).
21. A subject whose main word is an –ing or to-form requires a singular verb.
e.g. Writing good letters takes a long time. 8. Comment on the classification of nouns according to their lexical meaning
According to their lexical meaning nouns fall under two classes: common nouns and proper nouns.
Proper nouns are individual names given to separate persons or things. Here belong:
1. personal names: Peter, Brown;
2. geographical names: the Crimea, Ukraine, London;
3. the names of the month and the days of the week: Sunday, August;
4. the name of ships, hotels, clubs, periodicals, etc.
Proper nouns may change their meaning and become common nouns.
E.g. He took a sandwich and a glass of champagne.
Common nouns are subdivided into: class nouns, collective nouns, material nouns, abstract nouns.
1. Class nouns denote persons or things belonging to a class: parka, beret.
2. Collective nouns denote a number or collection of similar individuals or things regarded as a single unit. They fall under the following groups:
a) nouns used only in the singular: money, linen, furniture, machinery.
b) nouns used only in the plural: clothes, belongings, sweepings.
c) nouns that may be both singular and plural: family, crowd, party, staff.
d) nouns of multitude; they are singular in form though plural in meaning: police, cattle, poultry, people.
3. Nouns of material denote material: iron, silk, leather, wool, water. They are uncountables and are generally used without any article. They may turn into class nouns: glass – a glass.
4. Abstract nouns denote
some qualities: beauty, courage, humor;
notions: idea, information;
states: life, death, peace;
actions: fight;
feelings and emotions: love, joy, hatred, anger.
Abstract nouns may change their meaning and become class nouns. This change is marked by the use of the article and of the plural number:
beauty – a beauty – beauties; youth – a youth – youths.
1. ’s is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in –s:
a man’s job a woman’s intuition a child’s voice a children’s book |
the bull’s horns women’s clothes the people’s choice |
2. A simple apostrophe (’) is used with plural nouns ending in –s:
a girls’ school the eagles’ nest |
the students’ hostel the Smiths’ car |
3. Classical names ending in –s usually add only the apostrophe;
Pythagoras’ Theorem Archimedes’ Law |
Sophocles’ play Hercules’ Labours |
4. Other names ending in –s can take ’s or the apostrophe alone:
Mr. Jones’ or Mr. Jones’s house Wells’ or Wells’s works
Note: The pronunciation of the genitive case ending follows the same rules as the pronunciation of the plural ending but it is pronounced /ΙΖ/ with nouns ending in s and forming the genitive case in two ways, whether the letter s is written or not. |
5. With compounds, the last word takes the ’s:
my brotherinlaw’s guitar
6. Names consisting of several words are treated similarly:
Henry the Eighth’s wives
The Prince of Wale’s helicopter
7. ‘s can also be used after initials:
The PM’s secretary the VIP’s escort |
the MP’s briefcase |
8. ‘s may be added to a whole group of words. (It is called the group genitive).
Jane and Mary’s room Jack and Ann’s children
The last word of the group need not even be a noun.
e.g. I shall be back in an hour or two’s time.
Note: We add the suffix –‘s after the last of two or more names to show common possession.
e.g. John and George’s camera (the camera belongs to both of them).
We add ’s after each name to show individual possession.
e.g. John and George’s cameras.
Somebody else’s umbrella
Note: When the possessive case is used, the article before the person or thing “possessed disappears:
e. g. the daughter of the politician – the politician’s daughter
the intervention of America – America’s interventions
the plays of Shakespeare – Shakespeare’s plays
1. The genitive case is chiefly used of living beings and its main meaning is that of possession.
my friend’s book
a bird’s nest
the child’s father
2. It is used to denote the relation between a part and a whole.
a boy’s leg but the leg of a table
a man’s foot the foot of a mountain
3. It may express the doer of an action (the socalled subjective genitive) or show that some person is the object of the action (the socalled objective genitive).
It was Tom’s step that Maggie heard on the steps (subjective)
Henry’s hatred was still deeper (subjective)
Ann’s reception in the neighborhood (objective)
4. The genitive case may be used to denote the qualitative characteristics of a thing:
a children’s room
a Bachelor’s degree
officer’s clothes
The genitive case may also be used of nouns denoting lifeless things and abstract notions in the following instances:
1. with names of countries and towns:
Britain’s interests
the city’s parks
2. of ships and boats:
the ship’s bell
the yacht’s mast
3.of vehicles and their details, though the ofconstruction is safer:
a glider’s wings or the wings of a glider
the train’s heating system or the heating system of the train
the liner’s passengers, the sound of car’s brakes
4.with nouns denoting dwelling places and environment:
the garden’s blossom
the river’s bank
the sky’s blue
the sun’s fire
5. certain social units and organisations:
the nation’s future
the research group’s records
6. social, political and economic phenomena:
the campaign’s succes/failure
7.events in the field of art and sports:
the film’s merits
the game’s popularity
the play’s style
8. of nouns denoting time, distance:
a week’s holiday in five minutes’ walk
a stone’s throw at a five miles’ distance
two hours’ delay today’s paper
tomorrow’s weather ten minutes’ break
But
a tenminute break
a twohour delay
a threeweek holiday
are also possible
9.of nouns denoting measures of weight and cost:
ten dollars’ worth of icecream
a few thousand tons’ cargoes
10. with for +noun +sake:
for heaven’s sake
for goodness’ sake for Good’s sake
11. in set phrases such as:
to one’s heart’s (delight) content
at one’s wits’ end
out of harm’s way
12. Sometimes with names of seasons, months and days.
a winter’s day or a winter day
a summer’s day or a summer day
But we cannot make spring or autumn possessive except when they are personified:
Autumn’s return
The Absolute Genitive is used:
1. when the second component is dropped to avoid unnecessary repetition.
I parked my car next to John’s
Whose umbrella is it? – It’s Ann’s.
2. when it is introduced by the preposition of to denote “one of many” (the socalled partitive possessive /double genitive).
He is an old friend of my father’s (one of my father’s old friends).
3. in constructions with an ofphrase to express emotional characteristics (such as disapproval, irony, neglect etc.)
That’s another big idea of your uncle’s
How do you like that silly joke of Jane’s?
4. to denote the place of residence:
at Brown’s/the Browns’ at my brother’s
5. the genitive case may have local meaning to denote a shop, a plant etc. (the ‘s element loses the meaning of possession).
at a chemist’s/butcher’s/florist’s etc = (at a baker’s/fishmonger’s etc. shop)
She got married at St. Paul’s.
Names of the owners of some businesses can be used similarly: Claridge’s.
Note: Some very wellknown shops etc. call themselves by the possessive form and drop apostrophe: Foyks, Harrods.
Note: We don’t use the genitive case when the governing noun has an attribute expressed by a noun with a preposition or a subordinate clause:
e.g. She is the sister of the girl with whom we were at school together.
Most nouns have the same form for masculine and feminine: parent, child, singer, dancer.
We use only he or she to refer to people and it to refer to everything else. It is the pronouns, not nouns that tell us if the reference is to female or male:
e.g. He is the person you spoke to.
Gender, the distinction of nouns into masculine, feminine and neuter, may be expressed lexically by means of:
1. different words:
man – woman boy – girl gentleman – lady sir madam king queen |
monk – nun widower widow bachelor – spinster bridegroom – bride uncle – aunt |
son – daughter nephew – niece drake – duck gander – goose bull – cow |
stallion – mare boar – sow stag – doe ram – ewe |
I The plural form of English nouns is formed by adding the ending (inflexion) -s or -es pronounced as /z/, /s/ and /Iz/.
1. /Iz/ after sibilants: noses, horses, bridges.
2. /z/ after voiced consonants (other than sibilants) and vowels: flowers, beds, dogs, boys.
3. /s/ after voiceless consonants: caps, cooks, hats, coats.