Phraseological expressions are structurally, lexically and semantically fixed phrases or sentences.There are different classifications of phraseological units based on different approaches: semantic (V.V.Vinogradov), functional (A.I. Smirnitsky), contextual (H.N.Amosova).
Semantic classification is the oldest and the most popular. It divides phraseological units into 3 groups:
Phraseological Fusions зрощення: heavy father – a serious part in a theatrical play; to spill the beans – to tell a secret.
Unities: a sacred сэйкрид cow що-небудь що ніколи не піддається критиці, to show one's teeth скалити зуби.
And Collocations: bad mistake (awful), to take tea (have).
A.V. Kunin divides phraseological units into 3 classes.
1. Idioms are set expressions, with fully or partially transferred meanings, e.g., to show the white feather злякатися.
2.Semi-idioms have both literal and figurative meanings e.g., chain reaction ланцюгова реакция, to lay down one's arms капитулювати.
3. Phraseomatic units are set expressions with literal but complex meanings e.g., to raise one's eyebrows підняти брови.
The structural types of phraseological units are:
1. Nominal phrases, e.g., a bit (piece) of one's mind сказати все що думаэш , троянський кінь, дамоклів меч;
2. Adjectival phrases, e.g., as good as gold золото а не, as pretty as a picture гарний як намальований.
3. Verbal phrases, e.g., kick two birds with one stone, брати бика за роги, пекти раків.
4. Adverbial phrases, e.g., as quick as a flash, tit for tat зуб за зуб;
6. Introductory phrases, e.g., after all, as a matter of fact.
7. Phrases with the structure of a sentence: a) sayings, e.g., never say die не впадай у відчай, b) proverbs, e.g., birds of a feather fly together, кулик кулика бачить здалека.
A borrowed word (or borrowing) is a word taken from another language and modified in phonetic shape, spelling and meaning according to the standards of the English language. English and Ukrainian borrowed words may be subdivided into classes:
Proper borrowings are words and expressions that retain their foreign form and meaning. E.g vis-a-vis (= face to face) – from French
Translation loans are words and expressions that are taken from another language through literal translation. Translation loans can be subdivided into lexical and semantic. А) Lexical translation loans (also calques кэлкс ) take place when in the process of the literal translation borrowed expressions preserve their original meaning. E.g honey moon - медовий місяць В) Semantic translation loans appear when a foreign meaning is transferred into a native word.
According to the degree of assimilation, borrowed words in English and in Ukrainian can be sub-divided into three groups:
• completely assimilated borrowings include early Latin and early French borrowings. Most of Ukrainian completely assimilated borrowings include Greek, Scandinavian and French e.g. street, wall,; take, want; figure, finish
• partly assimilated borrowings have retained some of their foreign features (e.g. in pronunciation) ballet, genre жонре, десант, жабо, жюри,
• non- assimilated borrowings are words and phrases that have preserved their original spelling, pronunciation, and meaning e.g де факто (= in fact) – from Latin
Different kinds of translation as a process of reproducing the content and meanings of different language/content units can also be performed by more than one communication model.
1) In the process of translation the communicative model is direct: Source -) Translator –) Receiver. From the source information comes to the translator, who transmits the same information to the receiver. If the receiver of the work does not understand the translation in some places, or when the recipient of the work needs certain clarifications, he will address to the translator, that is why a partial two-way communication model is created. S Tr-)(R
2) In machine translation another model is used. In this model, the Receiver addresses the source to correct the translation if it is necessary. Thus, the doer and the proofreader of the translation becomes the receiver of the translation. S )-(R/Tr
1) In consecutive interpreting, the communicative model is reversed, from the receiver to the source. However, consecutive interpreters use a two-way communicative model, because the information on the one hand comes to its Receiver, and on the other hand is checked by the Receiver (through the interpreter). Thus, the circle of information movement becomes closed.
2) The interpreter-guide works on a direct one-way model, whose components are only source and receiver. The model of such interpretation is shortened. But when a tourist adresses to the guide with a question about what he heard, the model of communication changes, it becomes two-way, because first the tourist addresses to the guide, and after he gets an answer.
3) In the process of whisper interpreting can be used 3 communication models:
1) a direct one-way model 2) a two-way model where the source answers the Recerver 's question 3) the reversed one-way model.
4) In the process of simultaneous interpreting a direct one-way model is used.
The abridged translation is an omission of certain parts of the source language when translated, conveying only the main points. The original text is reproduced only partially, but with a relatively complete transfer of its content in such a form that is necessary to achieve successful translation. Abridged translation is not based on the principle of fidelity to the original but on the specific needs of the target group to whom it is addressed.
Adaptation as a type of abridged translation is a partial explication of the structure and content of the original in the translation process to easily understand the translation text by certain groups of receptors who do not have sufficient knowledge or professional and life experience necessary to fully understand the original. For example, adaptation adult books for young readers or popularization of scientific and technical text.
Summarising is defined as creating a condensed and clear version of the original that covers its main points, the most important facts or ideas.
Annotation means to minimize the volume of the original while preserving its main content. This type of abridged translation can be used to summarize the content of the book, article, research, report, etc. in the target language.
The redundancy of language, the lack of unambiguous correspondence between the content of thought, or the lack of translation time can cause such compression of information. Accordingly, annotation is actively used by interpreters in consecutive interpreting or whispering to re-express oral communications (such as speeches) in whole or in part. Most often, important data and figures are noted.
Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text.
Free translation is the reproduction of the source form and content in a loose way. This concept means adding extra elements of information or losing some essential ones.
Free translation is appropriate in some cases: poetry translations are done with a certain degree of freedom. A translator is also free to modernize a classic text in order to subvert established target-language reader-response. Free translation is also admitted in the titles of novels, movies.
Ukrainian history of translation began soon after the adoption of Christianity in the tenth century. According to Nestor the Chronicler крониклэ, in the 11 sentury Yaroslav the Wise gathered together many translators to translate books from Greek in the St. Sophia Cathedral into the Slavonic language. It was the language of many ecclesiastic иклизиЭстик worksю Initially only the materials necessary for church services were translated, but soon the Bible began to appear in different cities of Kyivan Rus' . Next appeared Psalm Сам books. In those times, semi-ecclesiastic works, which were called apocryphaЭ became well-known.
A Spanish version of the Bible, translated and printed in Spain in the 16th sentury. Some of this work was revised and corrected, and reprinted in the seventeenth century. Spanish Psalters were produced by Protestants. However, it was not in high circulation because they took so long to make. In addition, came Spanish New Testaments which were forbidden books by the Catholics Кэслик. The entire Old Testament unto that time had not been translated into the Spanish. However, in 1555 a Jewish Джуиш press printed a literal translation. It was not easy to read because of its poor syntax but it was useful in the translation of the whole Bible.
Caedmon the first Old English Christian poet, whose fragmentary hymn Хим to the creation is the expression of Christian themes. The St. John's Gospel was translated by scholar Bede Бід. Among the translated texts was (Duties of the Shepherd – Обов'язки пастиря). Pope St. Gregory translated a text Duties of the Shepherd Шэпэд which became a textbook for monastic schools.
There are three trends which had influence in the periods of Classicism
1. The ancient strict word-for-word translation of ecclesiastic and philosOphic works.
2. The unrestricted free translation
3. The old trend adhering to theregular sense-to-sense translation without the unrestricted reductions or additions to the texts/works in their final translated versions.
Nevertheless, some people believed that the translator should faithfully convey not only the content but also the artistic merits of the source language works. That is why regular free adaptation was widely practised during the 17th-18th centuries.
Translation played a key role in the Renaissance since the very concept of the Renaissance was based on a new look at the classics of Greece and Rome. This required a large volume of translations from the original classical languages to the languages of Europe.
Typical Renaissance statements of translation principles are
1. The translator must understand perfectly the content and intention of the author he is translating.
2. The translator should have a perfect knowledge of the source language and an equally excellent knowledge of the 'target language'.
3. The translator should avoid the tendency to translate word for word.
4. The translator should employ forms of speech in common usage.
5. Through his choice and order of words the translator should produce a total overall effect with appropriate 'tone'.
The second half of the nineteenth century was marked by a regular revival of translation in Ukraine on the one hand and by direct prohibitions of the Ukrainian language and culture in Russia on the As a result, the publishing of Ukrainian translations and works of Ukrainian national authors in general was greatly hindered. One of the most prolific прэлИфик Ukrainian poets, is a figure of I. Franko. Among the translators of these and other works besides I. Franko and his son Petro Franko were later O.Mykhalevych, PKarmans'kyi, O.OIes', I.Petrusevych, A.Voloshyn, M.Lozyns'kyi.
In his fifty-volume collection of works, which came off the press in Kyiv in 1970's, seven large volumes were dedicated to versification drawn from different languages and cultures of the world. His faithful translations, free interpretations and free adaptations originated from works created by scores of various authors. A victim of the Stalinist terror тэрэ against the Ukrainian intellectuals in the 1930's, M.Voronyi successfully versified Весифайд poetic works from Italian (part of Дантис Dante's Дивайн Divine Comedy), English (Shakespeare).
The well-known poet and translator V.Samiylenko (1864-1925) He began in 1887 with the translation of a part of Homer's Iliad Илиед, which was followed by ten cantos of Dante's The Divine Comedy (1902).Mykola Lukash was most prolific during the relatively favourable twenty-year period when he translated “Faust”, “MAdame Bovary”, the Boccaccio’s “Decameron” and many other works.
Aspect, , transformational, functional equivalence theory
denotative approach
The transformational approach is insufficient when the original text corresponds to one invisible concept which is rendered by the translator as a text in another language also corresponding to the relevant invisible concept.
For instance, the translation of almost any piece of poetry cannot be explained by simple substitution of source language words and word combinations for those of target language.
This type of translation is characteristic of any text, written or spoken, rather than only for poetry or high-style prose and the denotative approach is an attempt to explain such translation cases. According to denotative approach the process of translation consists of the following mental operations:
• translator reads (hears) a message in the source language;
• translator finds a denotatum and concept that correspond to this message;
• translator formulates a message in the target language relevant to the above denotatum and concept.
The skopos theory of translation studies employs the prime principle of a purposeful action that determines a translation strategy. It was coined by Hans Vermeer. According to Vermeer, there are three possible types of purposes. Firstly, a general purpose that a translator strives for, such as translating as a source of professional income. Secondly, a communicative purpose of a target text in a target circumstance, such as to instruct the audience. Thirdly, the purpose of a translation strategy or approach, such as to exhibit the structural traits of the source language.
transformational approach
According to the transformational approach translation is viewed as the transformation of objects and structures of the source language into those of the target.
In the transformational approach three levels of substitutions: morphological equivalences, lexical equivalences, and syntactic equivalences and/or transformations.
In the process of translation:
• at the morphological level morphemes (both word-building and word-changing) of the source language are substituted for those of the target;
• at lexical level words and word combinations of the source language are substituted for those of the target;
• at the syntactic level syntactic structures of the source language are substituted for those of the target.
For example, in the process of translation, the English word room is transformed into Ukrainian words кімната or простір.
Interpretation is a two-stage process of interlingual and cross-cultural communication during which an interpreter, on the basis of an analysed and transformed text in the SL, creates another text in TL which substitutes the source text in the TL and culture. In addition, It is a process aimed at reproducing the communicative intent of the source text modified by the difference between 2 languages and cultures.
There are 2 types of translation: written translation that is divided into translation of non- fictional texts and translation of fictional texts, and oral translation that includes oral consecutive, oral simultaneous and oral whispered.
Consecutive interpretation, which is a kind of interpreting, performed by an interpreter consecutively, i.e. messages of the SL speaker are interpreted one after another in pauses. While working, the interpreter listens to a speech, takes notes and then renders the meaning of the speaker's message into the target language.
Simultaneous interpretation is performed by an interpreter almost simultaneously (i.e. within the delay of not more than several seconds) with receiving a message in the SL with the help of special equipment.
Whispered interpretation, While working, the interpreter whispers in the target language to a maximum of two or three delegates what is being said by the source speaker. Whispered interpreting is performed in a simultaneous mode, however without any special equipment.
Oral communication, in the same way as written, always takes place in a certain context or communicative situation. This situation in its turn is embedded in the macro-context of communication, which includes extra-linguistic factors of the “world” such as cultural, social, economic, political, historical, religious, etc. In linguistics there are many scholars expressing different points of view, however most of them agree that oral and written texts function in a certain discourse.
There are such types of context as macro context (is the subject field world and the world in general), communicative context (is a context of a particular discourse) and micro context (is acontext of a particular utterance including its structure and semantics);
There are contextual relationships are relevant for interpretation as:
a)
anaphoric энэфОрик
or “backward” relationships, which occur when the meaning of a
linguistic unit acquires sense through the reference to the preceding
units of the micro or communicative context. Occur
when a word or phrase refers to smth mentioned earlier
in the discourse
b)
cataphoric or “forward” relationships, which occur when the
meaning of a linguistic unit acquires sense through the reference to
the oncoming, anticipated units of the micro or communicative
context. Occur
when a word or phrase refers to smth mentioned later
in the discourse
c)
exophoric or “outward” relationships, which occur when the
meaning of an element acquires sense through the reference to the
macro context, to the background knowledge, cultural and subject
field competence of the addressee and to the knowledge about “the
world” Occur
when a word or phrase refers to smth outside the discourse.