English and Ukrainian have the parts of speech that almost coincide. Parts of speech, according to their values, are usually subdivided into two classes: notional and functional. The languages have similar симэлэ notional such as the noun, the adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb and similar functional parts of speech such as the preposition, the conjunction, the particle and the interjection. The exception is the article that is not found in Ukrainian. A major мэйдже difficulty in English is that the same word can often belong to different parts of speech. Some of the forms are accounted by a functional conversion, but some of them are homonyms. Recategorisation can occur экЁ within a class or between classes. For example, the subcategory of a noun can be converted in such ways: from abstract to concrete (a youth meaning ‘a boy’), from uncountable to countable, from proper to common (an Einstein аинстайн meaning ‘a genius’). In English, the part-of-speech identification, due to its analytic nature and poor system of affixes, is based on syntactic properties of words but not on formal characteristics, for example, as in the Ukrainian language, which is rich in synthetic forms. The different approaches to SINGLING синглинг OUT parts of speech in English and Ukrainian are accounted for, by different grammatical structures of the contrasted languages.
The verb possesses a lot of grammatical categories such as person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. English offers much more forms for the expression. The category of tense denotes the relation of the action either to the moment of speaking or to some definite moment in the past or future. The three temporal dimensions such as the present, the past or the future can be expressed by means of 12 English verb forms: Indefinite (Present, Past, Future), Continuous (Present, Past, Future), Perfect (Present, Past, Future), Perfect Continuous (Present, Past, Future). Some of the English tenses denote time relations, others denote both time and aspect relations. In the Ukrainian language all the events are referred to one of the three time dimensions – the present, the past or the future. In Ukrainian the category of tense is closely connected with the category of person and is manifested by means of the personal forms. The category of tense and the category of aspect are intermingled. The imperative and the conditional moods do not possess the tense differentiation.
The
category of aspect ВИД
shows the way in which the action develops, whether it is in progress
or completed, etc. In Ukrainian the category of aspect predominates,
and the category of tense is subordinated to it. Ukrainian verbs are
divided into the perfective aspect (доконаний
вид)
and imperfective aspect (недоконаного
виду)
писати
– надписати,
читати
– прочитати.
Morphological
means
of the Ukrainian aspect form building are various: 1) prefixation
(питати – спитати, розпитати) 2) suffixation
(списувати – списати, нагадувати,
нагадати), 3) vowel alternation (вмирати – вмерти,
везти – перевозити), 4) the stress shifting
(вимірЯти
– вИміряти,
розкидáти – розкИдати),
5) the use of different stems (брати – взяти, говорити
– сказати) and others. Aspect forms in English and Ukrainian
are close connected with tense forms. The essential difference
between aspect forms in both languages concerns the correlation of
the common and perfective aspects. the action which happens regularly
or is a repeated one, is rendered in English usually by forms of the
common aspect, whereas in Ukrainian it is rendered by forms of the
imperfective aspect. Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade. – Вода
кипить при 100 Цельсія.
The category of voice In Ukrainian and English there are two types of voice such as active and passive. In English the passive voice of the verb is formed by combining of the help verb “to be” in the corresponding tense form with the Participle II of the main verb, which expresses its lexical meaning: He was invited to a party. The separate group includes reflexive verbs with the postfix -ся (голитися, гніватися). The passive voice can also be formed by the passive participle and non-personal form of participle ending in -но, -то товариство організовано). Also there are a lot of verbs which cannot be combined with this suffix that is they are unable to create the form of the reflexive state: лягти, сохнути, сісти, шуміти. In Ukrainian the category of voice is characteristic only of transitive verbs. Some verbs in Ukrainian have only the reflexive перехідна form that is they are used only with the suffix -ся: любуватися, боятися, надіятися, сміятися and others. The category of voice is a grammatical category, i.e. it is expressed by means of grammatical forms and not by lexical means.
Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text.
Free translation is the reproduction of the source form and content in a loose way. This concept means adding extra elements of information or losing some essential ones.
Free translation is appropriate in some cases: poetry translations are done with a certain degree of freedom. A translator is also free to modernize a classic text in order to subvert established target-language reader-response. Free translation is also admitted in the titles of novels, movies.
Ukrainian history of translation began soon after the adoption of Christianity in the tenth century. According to Nestor the Chronicler крониклэ, in the 11 sentury Yaroslav the Wise gathered together many translators to translate books from Greek in the St. Sophia Cathedral into the Slavonic language. It was the language of many ecclesiastic иклизиЭстик worksю Initially only the materials necessary for church services were translated, but soon the Bible began to appear in different cities of Kyivan Rus' . Next appeared Psalm Сам books. In those times, semi-ecclesiastic works, which were called apocryphaЭ became well-known.
A Spanish version of the Bible, translated and printed in Spain in the 16th sentury. Some of this work was revised and corrected, and reprinted in the seventeenth century. Spanish Psalters were produced by Protestants. However, it was not in high circulation because they took so long to make. In addition, came Spanish New Testaments which were forbidden books by the Catholics Кэслик. The entire Old Testament unto that time had not been translated into the Spanish. However, in 1555 a Jewish Джуиш press printed a literal translation. It was not easy to read because of its poor syntax but it was useful in the translation of the whole Bible.
Caedmon the first Old English Christian poet, whose fragmentary hymn Хим to the creation is the expression of Christian themes. The St. John's Gospel was translated by scholar Bede Бід. Among the translated texts was (Duties of the Shepherd – Обов'язки пастиря). Pope St. Gregory translated a text Duties of the Shepherd Шэпэд which became a textbook for monastic schools.
There are three trends which had influence in the periods of Classicism
1. The ancient strict word-for-word translation of ecclesiastic and philosOphic works.
2. The unrestricted free translation
3. The old trend adhering to theregular sense-to-sense translation without the unrestricted reductions or additions to the texts/works in their final translated versions.
Nevertheless, some people believed that the translator should faithfully convey not only the content but also the artistic merits of the source language works. That is why regular free adaptation was widely practised during the 17th-18th centuries.
Translation played a key role in the Renaissance since the very concept of the Renaissance was based on a new look at the classics of Greece and Rome. This required a large volume of translations from the original classical languages to the languages of Europe.
Typical Renaissance statements of translation principles are
1. The translator must understand perfectly the content and intention of the author he is translating.
2. The translator should have a perfect knowledge of the source language and an equally excellent knowledge of the 'target language'.
3. The translator should avoid the tendency to translate word for word.
4. The translator should employ forms of speech in common usage.
5. Through his choice and order of words the translator should produce a total overall effect with appropriate 'tone'.
The noun is a part of speech which unites words with the general categorical meaning of substance, or thingness. Nouns are the most numerous class of words. The class of nouns is constituted by the following grammatical categories: Number (singular, plural); Case (common and possessive род падеж); Gender (masculine, feminine, neutral)
Gender of nouns may be defined by 3 ways:
1)system of personal pronouns (he, she, it); 2) special suffixes -er(-or) , -ess (waitress); 3) lexical units which express the idea of gender (niece – nephew; bull – cow)
Common gender. Some nouns which can may both a female or a male person they belong to so call common gender (doctor, president). Animate nouns: he , she. Inanimate nouns - it. The Problem of Gender in English In Indo-European languages the category of gender is presented with flexions. It is not based on sex distinction, but it is grammatical.
Thus, the words husband and wife do not show any difference in their forms due to peculiarities of their lexical meaning. The difference between such nouns as actor and actress is a purely lexical one. In other words, the category of sex should not be confused with the category of gender, because sex is an objective biological category. It correlates with gender only when sex differences of living beings are manifested in the language grammatically (e.g. tiger – tigress, waiter — waitress, widow — widower).
The grammatical category of case in English nouns. Case is a grammatical category which marks the semantic role of the noun in the sentence and finds a grammatical expression in the language. As to Ukrainian nouns they may have 6 or 7 marked singular and plural oppositions in the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative case. All the existing theories concerning cases in English can be subdivided into 3 principal groups: 1) the traditional view that there are two cases within English nouns: common or possessive. 2) the number of cases is more than two; 3) English nouns have no morphological category of case. If we are taking about possessive case, this “case” can render various meanings: a) meanings of possession (the brother’s room); b) temporal relations (today’s newspaper). c) quantitative relations (an hour’s walk); d) interpersonal relations (Jane’s friend).
The category of number is represented by the opposition of the singular and the plural (table: tables) Both languages have two numbers: the singular number and the plural number. In Ukrainian there are the following groups of nouns: a) collective nouns (збірні) –кіннота, людство); b) nouns determining the substance or the mass (які позначають речовину або масу) (мідь, скло); c) abstract nouns (абстрактні) – (знання, здоров’я).
Both in English and in Ukrainian nouns fall into two classes: countable (исчисл) and uncountable. Uncountable nouns are further subdivided into two groups: The group of Singularia Tantum includes: Names of abstract notions (love, friendship); Names of mass materials (bread, sugar); Names of some collective inanimate objects (machinery); Names of sciences and professional activities (medicine, architecture); and Nouns of heterogeneous semantics. This group includes such nouns as: advice, knowledge, money, information, news. The group of Pluralia Tantum nouns includes: Nouns denoting objects consisting of two parts (trousers,); Nouns of multitude (police, poultry) and Nouns of various semantics (oats, clothes).
The second half of the nineteenth century was marked by a regular revival of translation in Ukraine on the one hand and by direct prohibitions of the Ukrainian language and culture in Russia on the As a result, the publishing of Ukrainian translations and works of Ukrainian national authors in general was greatly hindered. One of the most prolific прэлИфик Ukrainian poets, is a figure of I. Franko. Among the translators of these and other works besides I. Franko and his son Petro Franko were later O.Mykhalevych, PKarmans'kyi, O.OIes', I.Petrusevych, A.Voloshyn, M.Lozyns'kyi.
In his fifty-volume collection of works, which came off the press in Kyiv in 1970's, seven large volumes were dedicated to versification drawn from different languages and cultures of the world. His faithful translations, free interpretations and free adaptations originated from works created by scores of various authors. A victim of the Stalinist terror тэрэ against the Ukrainian intellectuals in the 1930's, M.Voronyi successfully versified Весифайд poetic works from Italian (part of Дантис Dante's Дивайн Divine Comedy), English (Shakespeare).
The well-known poet and translator V.Samiylenko (1864-1925) He began in 1887 with the translation of a part of Homer's Iliad Илиед, which was followed by ten cantos of Dante's The Divine Comedy (1902).Mykola Lukash was most prolific during the relatively favourable twenty-year period when he translated “Faust”, “MAdame Bovary”, the Boccaccio’s “Decameron” and many other works.
Aspect, , transformational, functional equivalence theory
denotative approach
The transformational approach is insufficient when the original text corresponds to one invisible concept which is rendered by the translator as a text in another language also corresponding to the relevant invisible concept.
For instance, the translation of almost any piece of poetry cannot be explained by simple substitution of source language words and word combinations for those of target language.
This type of translation is characteristic of any text, written or spoken, rather than only for poetry or high-style prose and the denotative approach is an attempt to explain such translation cases. According to denotative approach the process of translation consists of the following mental operations:
• translator reads (hears) a message in the source language;
• translator finds a denotatum and concept that correspond to this message;
• translator formulates a message in the target language relevant to the above denotatum and concept.
The skopos theory of translation studies employs the prime principle of a purposeful action that determines a translation strategy. It was coined by Hans Vermeer. According to Vermeer, there are three possible types of purposes. Firstly, a general purpose that a translator strives for, such as translating as a source of professional income. Secondly, a communicative purpose of a target text in a target circumstance, such as to instruct the audience. Thirdly, the purpose of a translation strategy or approach, such as to exhibit the structural traits of the source language.
transformational approach
According to the transformational approach translation is viewed as the transformation of objects and structures of the source language into those of the target.
In the transformational approach three levels of substitutions: morphological equivalences, lexical equivalences, and syntactic equivalences and/or transformations.
In the process of translation:
• at the morphological level morphemes (both word-building and word-changing) of the source language are substituted for those of the target;
• at lexical level words and word combinations of the source language are substituted for those of the target;
• at the syntactic level syntactic structures of the source language are substituted for those of the target.
For example, in the process of translation, the English word room is transformed into Ukrainian words кімната or простір.
Interpretation is a two-stage process of interlingual and cross-cultural communication during which an interpreter, on the basis of an analysed and transformed text in the SL, creates another text in TL which substitutes the source text in the TL and culture. In addition, It is a process aimed at reproducing the communicative intent of the source text modified by the difference between 2 languages and cultures.
There are 2 types of translation: written translation that is divided into translation of non- fictional texts and translation of fictional texts, and oral translation that includes oral consecutive, oral simultaneous and oral whispered.
Consecutive interpretation, which is a kind of interpreting, performed by an interpreter consecutively, i.e. messages of the SL speaker are interpreted one after another in pauses. While working, the interpreter listens to a speech, takes notes and then renders the meaning of the speaker's message into the target language.
Simultaneous interpretation is performed by an interpreter almost simultaneously (i.e. within the delay of not more than several seconds) with receiving a message in the SL with the help of special equipment.
Whispered interpretation, While working, the interpreter whispers in the target language to a maximum of two or three delegates what is being said by the source speaker. Whispered interpreting is performed in a simultaneous mode, however without any special equipment.
Oral communication, in the same way as written, always takes place in a certain context or communicative situation. This situation in its turn is embedded in the macro-context of communication, which includes extra-linguistic factors of the “world” such as cultural, social, economic, political, historical, religious, etc. In linguistics there are many scholars expressing different points of view, however most of them agree that oral and written texts function in a certain discourse.
There are such types of context as macro context (is the subject field world and the world in general), communicative context (is a context of a particular discourse) and micro context (is acontext of a particular utterance including its structure and semantics);
There are contextual relationships are relevant for interpretation as:
a)
anaphoric энэфОрик
or “backward” relationships, which occur when the meaning of a
linguistic unit acquires sense through the reference to the preceding
units of the micro or communicative context. Occur
when a word or phrase refers to smth mentioned earlier
in the discourse
b)
cataphoric or “forward” relationships, which occur when the
meaning of a linguistic unit acquires sense through the reference to
the oncoming, anticipated units of the micro or communicative
context. Occur
when a word or phrase refers to smth mentioned later
in the discourse
c)
exophoric or “outward” relationships, which occur when the
meaning of an element acquires sense through the reference to the
macro context, to the background knowledge, cultural and subject
field competence of the addressee and to the knowledge about “the
world” Occur
when a word or phrase refers to smth outside the discourse.